!EPA ATTACHMENT
NO...V._
United Stater?
Office of Water
Environmental Protection
?
Regulations and Standards
Agency
?
Washington, DC 20460
?
May 1, 1986
4/.` •
EPA
Water
EPA
440/5-86-001
QUALITY
CRITERIA
for
WA
1986
fl
INTERESTED PARTIES
Section 304(a) (1) of the Clean Water Act (33 U.S.C.
1314(a) (1) requires the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to
publish and periodically update ambient water quality criteria.
These criteria are to accurately reflect the latest scientific
knowledge (a) on the kind and extent of all identifiable effects
on health and welfare including, but not limited to, plankton,
fish shellfish, wildlife, plant life, shorelines, beaches,
aesthetics, and recreation which may be expected from the
presence of pollutants in any body of water including ground
water; (b) on the concentration and dispersal of pollutants, or
their byproducts, through biological, physical, and chemical
processes; and (c) on the effects of pollutants on biological
community diversity, productivity, and stability, including
information on the factors affecting rates of eutrophication and
organic and inorganic sedimentation for varying types of
receiving waters. These criteria are not rules and they do not
have regulatory impact. Rather, these criteria present
scientific data and guidance of the environmental effects of
pollutants which can be useful to derive regulatory requirements
based on considerations of water quality impacts. When
additional data has become available, these summaries have been
updated to reflect the latest Agency recommendations on
acceptable limits for aquatic life and human health protection.
Periodically EPA and its predecessor agencies has issued
ambient water quality criteria, beginning in
1968
with the "Green
Book" followed by the
1973
publication of the
"Blue
Book" (Water
Quality Criteria 1972).
In
1976,
the
"Red Book" (Quality
Far sale by the
Superintendent
of Documents. U S Government Printing Office
Washington.
DC 20402
Criteria for Water) was published. On November 28, 1980 (45 FR
79318), and February 15, 1984 (49 FR 5831), EPA announced through
Federal Register notices, the publication of 65 individual
ambient water quality criteria documents Cor pollutants listed as
toxic under section 307(a)(1) of the Clean Water Act. on July
29, 1985 (50 FR 30784), EPA published additional water quality
criteria documents.
The development and publication of ambient water quality
criteria has been pursued over the past
10
years and is an
ongoing process. EPA expects to publish about 10 final criteria
documents each year. Some of these will update and revise
existing criteria recommendations
and others will be issued for
the first time.
In a continuing effort to provide those who use EPA's water
quality and human health criteria with up-to-date criteria values
and associated information, this document
trcratity
Criteria
Pnr
Water 192.6 was assembled. This document includes summaries of
all
the contaminants for which EPA has developed criteria recom-
mendations (Appendix A-C). The appropriate appendix is
identified at the end of each summary. A more detailed
description of these procedures can be found in the appropriate
Appendix. Copies of this document can be obtained by contacting
the U.S. Government Printing Office at:
U.S. Government Printing Office
Superintendent of Documents
N. Capitol and H Street N.W.
Washington, D.C.
?
20401
A
fee is charged
for
this document.
Copies of the
complete background ambient water quality
•
•
•
•
criteria documents containing all the data used to develop the
criteria recommendations summarized herein and the "Red Book",
including complete bibliographies are available only from:
National Technical Information Service
5285
Port Royal Road
Springfield, VA
22161
•
Telephone:
(703) 487-4650
The NTIS order numbers for the criteria documents can be found in
the Index. A fee is charged for copies
of
these documents.
As new criteria are developed and existing criteria revised,
updated criteria summaries will be made available once a year to
those who purchase this document through the U.S. Government
Printing office. You will automatically be placed on the mailing
list to receive annual updates. The cost for receiving annual
updates is included in the purchase price
of
the document.
?
Ity Criteria
for
Water,
1986
is designed
to
be easily
updated to reflect
EPA's
continuing work to present the latest
scientific information and practices, Our planned schedule €or
future criteria development in the next few years is attached for
your information.
The Agency is currently developing Acceptable Daily Intake
(ADa)
or Verified Reference Dose (RfD) values on a number of
chemicals for Agency-wide use. Based upon this new analysis the
values have changed significantly for
5
chemicals from those used
in the original human health criteria calculation done in 1980.
•
The chemicals affected are as follows:
Acting Director,
Office of Water Regulations
and Standards
Gl
chemical
1980 WQC
1.
cyanide
200 ug/L
2.
Ethylbenzene
1.4 mg/L
3.
Nitrobenzene
19.8 mg/L
4.
Phenol
3.5?
mg/Z.
5.
Toluene
14.3 mg/L
Draft RfD
.02 mg/kg/day
.01 mg/kg/day
.0005 mg/kg/day
0.1 mg/kg/day
0.3 mg/kg/day
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT:
Dr. Frank Gostomski at the above address or by phoning (202) 245-
3030.
It is EPA's goal to continue to develop
.
and make available
ambient water quality criteria reflecting the latest scientific
practices and information. In this way we can continue to
improve and protect the quality of the Nation's waters.
James
M. Conlon
•
•
ALKALINITY
CRITERION:
20
mg/la or more as
CaCO3
freshwater aquatic life except where
natural concentrations are less.
INTRODUCTION:
Alkalinity is the sum total of components in the water that
tend to elevate the
pH
of the water above a value of about
4.5.
It is measured by titration with standardized acid to a pH value-
of about
4.5
and it is expressed commonly as milligrams per liter
of calcium carbonate. Alkalinity, therefore, is a measure of the
buffering capacity of the water, and since pH has a direct effect
on organisms as well as an indirect effect on the toxicity of
certain other pollutants in the water, the buffering capacity is
important to water quality. Examples
of
commonly occurring
materials in natural waters that increase the alkalinity are
carbonates, bicarbonates, phosphates and hydroxides.
•
RATIONALE:
The alkalinity of water used for municipal water supplies
important because it affects the amounts of chemicals that need
to be added to accomplish calculation, softening and control of
corrosion
in
distribution systems. The alkalinity of water
assists in the neutralization of excess acid produced during the
addition of such materials as aluminum sulfate during chemical
coagulation. Waters having sufficient alkalinity do not have to
be supplemented with artificially added materials to increase the
alkalinity. Alkalinity resulting from naturally occurring
materials such as carbonate and bicarbonate is not considered a
•
health hazard in drinking water supplies, per se, and naturally
occurring maximum levels up to approximately
400
mg/L as calcium
carbonate are not considered a problem to human health (NAS,
1974) .
Alkalinity is important for fish and other aquatic life in
freshwater systems because it buffers pH changes that occur
-naturally- as a result of photosynthetic activity of the
chlorophyll-bearing vegetation. Components of alkalinity such as
carbonate and biocarb.onate w ill complex some toxic heavy metals
and reduce their toxicity markedly. For these reasons, the
National Technical Advisory Committee (NATC,
1968)
recommended a
minimum alkalinity of 20 mg/L 'and the subsequent NAS Report
(1974) recommended that natural alkalinity not be reduced by more
than
25
percent but did not place an absolute minimal value for
it_ The use of the
25
present reduction avoids the problem of
establishing standards on waters where natural alkalinity is at
or below 20 mg/L.
For such waters, alkalinity should not be
further reduced.
•
The NAS Report recommends that adequate amounts of alkalinity
be maintained to buffer the pH within tolerable limits for marine
waters. It has been noted as a correlation that productive
waterfowl habitats are above
25
mg/L with higher alkalinities
resulting in better waterfowl habitats
(NATC,
1968) .
•
•
Excessive alkalinity can cause problems for swimmers by
altering the pH of the lacrimal fluid around the eye, causing
irritation.
For industrial water supplies, high alkalinity can
be
damaging to industries involved in food production, especially
those
in
which acidity accounts for flavor and stability, such as
the carbonated beverages. In other instances, alkalinity is
desirable because water with a high alkalinity is much less
corrosive.
A
brief summary of maximum alkalinities accepted as a source
of raw water by industry is included in Table 1. The
concentrations listed in the table are for water prior to
treatment and thus are only desirable ranges and not critical
ranges for industrial use.
The effect of alkalinity in water used for irrigation may be
important in some instances because it may indirectly increase
the relative proportion of sodium in
soil
water. As an example,
when bicarbonate concentrations are high, calcium and magnesium
ions that are in solution precipitate as carbonates in the soil
water the water becomes more concentrated through evaporation
and transpiration. As the calcium and magnesium ions decrease in
concentration, the percentage of sodium increases and results in
soil and plant damage. Alkalinity may also lead to chlorosis in
plants because it causes the iron to precipitate as a hydroxide
(NAS, 1974). Hydroxyl ions react with available iron in the soil
TABLE I*
•
Maximum Alkalinity In Waters Used As A Source
Of Supply Prior To Treatment
Alkalinity
Industry?
mg/L as CaCO3
Steam generation boiler makeup
? ?
350
Steam generation cooling
?
500
Textile mill products
?
50-200
Paper and allied products
?
75-150
Chemical and Allied
Thxdxls
?
500
Petroleum refining
?
'500
Primary metals inthstries-
?
200
Food canning
irxlistries ?
300
Bottled and canned soft drinks
?
85
NAS, 1974
•
water and make the iron unavailable to .plants. Such deficiencies
induce chlorosis and further plant damage. Usually alkalinity
must exceed 6
Ing/L
before Stich effects are noticed, however.
(QUALITY CRITERIA FOR WATER, JULY 1976) PB-263943
SEE APPENDIX C FOR METHODOLOGY
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CHLORINE
SUMMARY:
Thirty–three freshwater species in
28
genera have been
exposed to TRC and the acute values range from
28
ug/L for
aa.21jrri-er
magna
to 710 ug/L for the threespine stickleback. Fish
and invertebrate species had
similar
ranges of sensitivity.
Freshwater chronic tests have been conducted with two
invertebrate and one fish species and the chronic values for
these three species ranged from less than
3.4 to
26
ug/L, with
acute–chronic ratios from
3.7
to greater than
78.
The acute sensitivities of
24
species of saltwater animals in
21 genera have been determined for
CPO,
and the LC50 range
from
26 ug/L
for the eastern oyster to
1,418 ug/L
for a mixture of two
shore crab species. This range is very similar to that observed
with freshwater species, and fish and invertebrate species had
similar sensitivities. Only one chronic test has been conducted
with
a saltwater species, Menidia
R.e..a,..L.naula.a, and in this
test
the acute chronic ratio was
1.162.
The available data indicate that aquatic plants are more
resistant to chlorine than fish and invertebrate species.
•
NATIONAL CRITERIA:
The procedures described in the Guidelines for Deriving
Numerical National Water Quality
Criteria
for the Protection of
Aquatic Organisms and Their
Uses
indicate that, except possibly
where a locally important species is very sensitive, freshwater
aquatic organisms and their uses should not be affected
unacceptably if the 4-day average concentration of total residual
chlorine does not exceed
11 ug/L
more than once every 3 years on
?
•
the average and if the 1-hour average concentration does not
exceed 19 ug/L more than once every
3
years on the average.
The procedures described in the Guidelines indicate that,
except possibly where a locally important species is very
sensitive, saltwater aquatic organisms and their
uses
should not
be affected unacceptably if the 4-day average concentration of
chlorine-produced oxidants does not exceed 7.5
ug,11,
more than
once every 3 years on the average and if the one-hour average
concentration does not exceed
13
ug/L more than once every
3
years on the average.
The recommended exceedence frequency of 3 years is the
Agency's
itwill take
best
an
scientific
unstressed
judgment
system
of
to
the
recover
average
from
amount
a pollutionof
tim e
•
event in which exposure to chlorine exceeds the criterion.
A
stressed
system, for example, one in which several outfalls occur
in a
limited area, would be expected to require more time for
recovery. The resilience of ecosystems and their ability to
recover differ greatly, however, and site-specific criteria may
be established if adequate justification
is
provided.
The use of criteria in designing waste treatment facilities
requires the selection of an appropriate wasteload
al
location
model. Dynamic models are preferred for the application of these
criteria.
impractical,
Limited
in
which
data or
case
other
one
factors
should rely
may
on
make
a steady-statetheir
use
•
model. The Agency recommends the interim use of 1Q5 or 1Q10 for
Criterion Maximum Concentration design flow and 7Q5 or 7Q10 for
•
the Criterion Continuous Concentration design flow in steady-
state models for unstressed and stressed systems, respectively.
These matters are discussed in more detail in the Technical
Support Document for Water Quality-Based Toxics Control (U.S.
EPA, 1985).
(50 F.R. 30784, July 29, 1985)
SEE APPENDIX A FOR METHODOLOGY
•
SOLIDS (DISSOLVED) AND SALINITY
CRITERION:
250 mg/L
for chlorides and sulfates
in domestic water supplies (welfare).
•
INTRODUCTION:
Dissolved solids and total dissolved solids are terms
generally associated with freshwater systems and consist of
inorganic salts, small amounts of organic matter, .and dissolved
materials (Sawyer,
1960) .
The equivalent terminology in Standard
Methods is filtrable residue (Standard Methods,
1971) .
Salinity
is an oceanographic term, and although not precisely equivalent
to the total dissolved salt content it is related to it (Capurro,
1970) .
For most purposes, the terms total dissolved salt content
and salinity are equivalent.
The
principal inorganic anions
dissolved in water include the carbonates, chlorides, sulfates,
and nitrates (principally in ground waters); the principal
cations are sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium.
RATIONALE:
Excess dissolved solids are objectionable in drinking water
because of possible physiological effects, unpalatable mineral
tastes, and higher costs because of corrosion or the necessity
for additional treatment.
The physiological effects directly related to dissolved
solids include laxative effects principally from sodium sulfate
and magnesium sulfate and the adverse effect of sodium on certain
patients afflicted with cardiac disease and women with toxemia
associated with
pregnancy.?
One study was made using data
collected from wells in North Dakota. Results from a
•
questionnaire showed that with wells in which sulfates ranged
from
1,000
to
1,500
mg/L,
62
percent of the respondents indicated
laxative effects associated with consumption of the water.
However, nearly one-quarter of the respondents to the
questionnaire reported difficulties when concentrations ranged
from
200
to
500
mg/L (Moore,
1952) .
To
protect transients to an
area, a sulfate level of
250
mg/L,
should afford reasonable
protection from laxative effects.
As
indicated, sodium frequently is the principal component of
dissolved solids. Persons on restricted sodium diets may have an
intake restricted from
500
to 1,000 mg/day (Nat. Res. Coun.,
1954).
That portion ingested *in water must be compensated by
reduced levels in food ingested so that the total does not exceed
the allowable intake. Using certain assumptions of water intake
(e.5., 2 liters of water consumed per day) and sodium content of
food, it has been calculated that for very restricted sodium
diets, 20
mg/L in
water would be the maximum, while for
moderately restricted diets,
270 mg/L
would
be
maximum. Specific
sodium levels for entire water supplies have not been recommended
but various restricted sodium intakes are recommended because:
(1) the general population is not adversely affected by sodium,
but various restricted sodium intakes are recommended by
physicians for a significant portion of the population, and (2)
270
mg/L of sodium is representative of mineralized waters that
may be aesthetically unacceptable, but many domestic water
supplies exceed this level. Treatment for removal or sodium in
•
•
water supplies is costly (NAS,
1974).
A
study based on consumer surveys in
29
California water
systems was made to measure the taste threshold of dissolved
salts in water (Bruvold et al.,
1969).
Systems were selected to
eliminate possible interferences from other taste-causing
substances than dissolved salts. The study revealed that
consumers rated waters with
319 to 397 mg/L
dissolved solids as
"excellent"
while those with
1,283
to 1,333 mg/L
dissolved solids
were "unacceptable" depending on the rating system used.
A
"good"
rating was registered for dissolved solids less than
658
to
755
mg/L.
The
1962
PHS
Drinking Water Standards recommended a
maximum dissolved solids concentration of
500
mg/L unless more
suitable supplies were unavailable.
Specific constituents included in the dissolved solids in
water may cause mineral tastes at lower concentrations than other
constituents. Chloride ions have frequently been cited as having
a low taste threshold in water. Data from Ricter and MacLean
(1939)
on a taste panel of 53
adults indicated that
61 mg/L
NaC1
was the median level for detecting a difference from distilled
water. At a median concentration of
395
mg/L
chloride a salty
taste was distinguishable, although the range was from
120
to
1,215 mg/L.
Lockhart,
0:
al.
1955)
evaluated the effect of
chlorides on water used for brewing coffee indicated threshold
concentrations for chloride ranging from
210
mg/L,
to
310
mg/L
depending on the associated cation. These data indicate that a
level of
250
Mg/L
chlorides is a reasonable maximum level to
protect consumers of drinking water.
The causation of corrosion and encrustation of metallic
•
surfaces by water containing dissolved solids is well known. In
water distribution systems corrosion is controlled by insulating
dissimilar metal connections by nonmetallic materials, using pR
control and corrosion inhibitors, or some form of galvanic or.
impressed electrical current systems (Lehmann,
1964).
In
household systems water piping, wastewater piping, water heaters,
faucets, toilet flushing mechanisms, garbage grinders and both
clothes and dishwashing machines incure 'damage.
By using water with
1,750
mg/L
dissolved solids as compared
with
250
mg/L,
service life was reduced from 70 percent for
toilet flushing mechanisms to 30 percent for washing equipment.
Such increased corrosion was calculated in
1968
to cost the
consumer an additional
$0.50
per
1,000
gallons used.
All species of fish and other aquatic life must tolerate a
range of dissolved solids concentrations in order to survive
under natural conditions. Based on studies in Saskatchewan it
has been indicated that several common freshwater species
survived
10,000
mg/L dissolved solids, that whitefish and pike-
perch survived
15,000
mg/L, but only the stickleback survived
20,000
mq/L dissolved solids. It was concluded that lakes with
dissolved solids in excess of 15,000 Ing/L were unsuitable for
most freshwater fishes (Rawson and Moore,
1944).
The
1968
NTAC
Report also recommended maintaining osmotic pressure levels of
less than that caused by a 15,000 mg/L solution of sodium
chloride.
•
•
•
Marine fishes also exhibit variance in ability
to tolerate
salinity changes. However, fishkills in Laguna Madre off the
Texas coast have occurred with salinities
in
the range of
75
to
100 oioo. Such concentrated seawater is caused by evaporation
and lack of
exchange
with
the Gulf of Mexico (Rounsafell and
Everhart, 1953).
Estuarine species of fish are tolerant of salinity changes
ranging from fresh to brackish to seawater. Anadromous species
likewise are tolerant although evidence indicates that the young
cannot tolerate the change until the normal time of migration
(Rounsefell and Everhart,
1953).
Other aquatic species are more
dependent on salinity for protection from predators or require
certain minimal salinities for successful hatching of eggs.
The
oyster drill cannot tolerate salinities
less
than
12.5 o/oo.
Therefore, estuarine segments containing salinities below about
12.5 o/oo produce most of the seed oysters for planting
(Rounsefell
and Everhart, 1953).
Based on similar examples, the
1968
NTAC Report recommended that to protect fish and other
marine animals no changes in hydrography or stream flow should be
allowed that permanently change isohaline patterns in the estuary
by more than 10 percent from natural variation.
Many of the recommended game
bird
levels for dissolved solids
concentrations in drinking water have been extrapolated from data
collected on domestic species such as chickens. However, young
ducklings were reported poisoned
in Suisan Marsh by salt when
maximum summer salinities varied from 0.55 to
1.74 o/oo with
means as
high as
1.26 0/00 (Griffith,
1963).
Indirect effects of excess dissolved solids are primarily the
•
elimination of desirable food plants and other habitat-forming
plants.?
Rapid salinity changes cause plasmolysis of tender
leaves and stems because of changes in osmotic pressure. The
1968 NTAC Report recommended the following limits in salinity
variation from natural to protect wildlife habitats:
Natural Salinity
(o/oo)
Variation Permitted
(o/oo)
0 to 3.5
1
3.5
to
13.5
2
13.5
to 35
4
Agricultural uses of water are also limited by excessive
dissolved solids concentrations. Studies have indicated that
chickens, swine, cattle, and sheep can survive on saline waters
up t o 15,000 mg/L of salts of sodium and calcium combined with
bicarbonates, chlorides, and sulfates but only 10,000 mg/L of
corresponding salts of potassium and magnesium. The approximate
limit for highly alkaline waters containing sodium and calcium
carbonates is 5,000 mg/L (NTAC, 1968).
Irrigation use of water depends not only upon the osmotic
effect of dissolved solids, but also on the ratio of the various
cations present. In arid and semiarid areas general
classification of salinity hazards has been prepared (NTAC, 1968)
(see Table 9).
Table 9.-Dissolved Solids Hazard for Irrigation Water (mg/L).
water from which no detri-
mental effects will usually
be noticed
?
500
•
water which can have detri-
mental effects on sensi-
tive crops ?
500-1,000
?
water that may have adverse
effects on many crops and
requires careful manage-
ment Practices
?
1,000-2,000
?
water that can be used for
tolerant plants on perme-
able soils with careful
management practices
?
2,00 0-5,000
The amount of sodium and the percentage of sodium in relation
to other cations are often important. In addition to
contributing to osmotic pressure, sodium is toxic to certain
plants, especially fruits, and frequently causes problems in soil
structure, infiltration, and permeability rates (Agriculture
Handbook li60, 1954). A high percentage of exchangeable sodium in
soils containing clays that swell when wet can cause a soil
condition adverse t o water movement
and plant growth.
?
The
exchangeable-sodium percentage
(ESP)* is an index of the sodium
status of soils. An ESP of 10 to
15 percent is
considered
excessive if a high percentage of swelling clay minerals is
present (Agricultural Handbook #160,
1954).
For sensitive fruits, the tolerance for sodium for irrigation
water is for a
sodium adsorption ratio (SAR)** of about 4,
whereas for general crops and forages a range of
8 to
18 is
generally considered usable (NTAC, 1968).
It is
emphasized that
application of these factors must be interpreted in relation to
specific soil conditions existing in a given locale and therefore
frequently requires field investigation.
Industrial requirements regarding the dissolved solids
content of raw waters is quite variable.
?
Table 10 indicates
Table 10.-Total Dissolved Solids Concentrations of Surface
Waters That Have Been Used as Sources for
Industry/Use
?
Industrial Water SuppliesMaximum
Concentration
•
(mg/L)
Textile?
150
Pulp and Paper?
1,080
Chemical
?
2,500
Petroleum
?
3,500
Primary Metals
?
. 1,500
Boiler Make-up
?
35,000
•
•
maximum values accepted by various industries for process
requirements (NAS,
1974).
Since water of almost any dissolved
solids concentration can be de-ionized to meet the most stringent
requirements, the economics of such treatment are the limiting
factor for industry.
*ESP = 100 [a + 'b (SAR)
1?
[a + b(SAR))
where:
a = intercept respresènting experimental
error
(ranges from
-0.06 to 0.01)
b =slope of regression line (ranges
from
0.014 to 0.016)
**SAR =
sodium adsorption ratio =
?
Na?
-
(0.5(Ca +
14g))"
SAR is expressed as
milliequivalents
(QUALITY CRITERIA FOR WATER, JULY
1976) PB-263943
SEE APPENDIX C FOR METHODOLOGY
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•
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PHENOL
CRITERIA:
•
Aquatic Life
The available data for phenol indicate that acute and chronic
toxicity to freshwater aquatic life occurs at concentrations as
low
as
10,200
and
2,560
ug/L,
respectively, and would occur at
lower concentrations among species that are more sensitive than
those tested.
The available data for phenol indicate that toxicity to
saltwater aquatic life occurs at concentrations as low as 5,800
ug/L and would occur at lower concentrations among species that
are more sensitive than those tested. No data are available
concerning the chronic toxicity of phenol to sensitive saltwater
aquatic life.
Human Health
For comparison purposes, two approaches were used to derive
criterion levels for phenol. Based on available toxicity data,
to protect public health the derived level is 3.5 mg/L.
Using available organoleptic data,
?
to control
undesirable taste and odor qualities of ambient water the
estimated level is 0.3 mg/L, It should be recognized that
organoleptic data have limitations as a basis for establishing a
water quality criterion, and have no demonstrated relationship to
potential adverse human health effects.
NOTE: The U.S. EPA is currently developing Acceptable Daily
Intake (ADI) or Verified Reference Dose (RfD) values for
Agency-wide use for this chemical. The new value should
be substituted
when
it
becomes available. The January,
1986,
draft Verified Reference Dose document cites an RfD
of
0.1
mg/kg/day for phenol.
(45
F.R.
79318,
November
28, 1980)
SEE APPENDIX B FOR METHODOLOGY
•
CRITERION:
?
BARIUM
1 mg/L for domestic water supply (health).
INTRODUCTION:
Barium is a yellowish-white metal of the alkaline earth
•
group. It occurs in nature chiefly as barite, BaSO
4 and
witherite, BaCO
3
, both of which are highly insoluble salts. The
metal is stable in dry air, but readily oxidized by humid air or
water.
Many of the salts of barium are soluble in both water and
acid, and soluble barium salts are reported to be poisonous
(Lange, 1965: NAS, 1974). However, barium ions generally are
thought to be rapidly precipitated or removed from solution by
absorption and sedimentation (McKee and
Wolf, 1963 NAS, 1974).
While barium is a malleable, ductile metal, its major
commercial value is in its compounds. Barium compounds are used
in a variety of industrial applications including the
metallurgic, paint, glass and electronics industries, as well as
for medicinal purposes.
•
RATIONALE:
Concentrations of barium drinking water supplies generally
range from less than 0.6 ug/L to approximately 10 ug/L with upper
limi ts in a few midwestern and, western States ranging from 100 to
3,000 ug/L
(PHS,
1962/1963; Katz, 1970; Little, 1971). Barium
enters the body primarily through air and water, since
appreciable amounts are not contained in
foods
(NAS,
1974).
The fatal dose of barium for man is reported to be
550
to
600
•
mg. Ingestion of soluble barium compounds may also result in
effects on the gastrointestinal tract, causing vomiting and
diarrhea, and on the central nervous system, causing violent
tonic and clonic spasms followed in some cases by paralysis
(Browning,
1961;
Patty,
1962,
cited in. Preliminary Air Pollution
Survey of Barium and Its Compounds,
1969).
Barium salts are
considered to be muscle stimulants, especially for the heart
muscle (Sollman,
1957).
By constrictingblood vessels, barium
may cause an increase in blood pressure. On the other hand, it
is not likely that barium accumulates in the bone, muscle, kidney
or other tissues because it is readily excreted (Browning,
1961;
MoXee and Wolf, 1963).
Stokinger and Woodward
(1958)
developed a safe concentration
for barium in drinking water based on the limiting values for
industrial atmospheres, an estimate of the amount absorbed into
the blood stream, and daily consumption of 2 liters of water.
From other factors they arrived at a limiting concentration of
2
mg/I, for a healthy adult human population, to which a safety
factor was applied to allow for any possible accumulation in the
body. Since barium is not removed by conventional water
treatment processes and because of the toxic effect on the heart
and blood vessels, a limit of 1 mg/L is recommended for barium in
domestic water supplies.
Experimental data indicate that the soluble barium
concentration in fresh and marine water generally would have to
exceed
50
Ing/L before toxicity to aquatic life would be expected.
Inmost natural waters, there is sufficient sulfate or carbonate
•
to precipitate the barium present in the water as a virtually
insoluble, non-toxic compoland, Recognizing that the physical and
chemical properties of barium generally will preclude the
existence of the toxic soluble form under usual marine and fresh
water conditions, a restrictive criterion for aquatic life
appears unwarranted.
(QUALITY CRITERIA FOR.
WATER, JULY
1976)
PB-263943
SEE APPENDIX
C
FOR METHODOLOGY
•
•
?
MANGANESE
CRITERIA:
•
50
ug/L
for domestic water supplies (welfare):
100 ug/L
for protection of consumers of marine molluscs.
INTRODUCTION:
Manganese does not occur naturally as a metal but is found in
various salts and minerals, frequently in association with iron
compounds. The principal manganese-containing substances are
manganese dioxide
(Mn0 2 ),
pyrolusite, manganese carbonate
(rnodocrosite) and manganese silicate (rhodonite). The oxides
are the only important minerals mined. Manganese is not mined in
the United States except when manganese is contained in iron ores
that are deliberately used to foZ-m ferro-manganese alloys.
The primary uses of manganese are in metal alloys, dry cell
batteries, micro-nutrient fertilizer additives, organic compounds
used in paint driers and as chemical reagents. Permanganates are
very strong oxidizing agents of organic materials.
Manganese is a vital micro-nutrient for both plants and
animals. When manganese is not present in sufficient quantities,
plants exhibit chlorosis (a yellowing of the leaves) or failure
of the leaves to develop properly. Inadequate quantities of
manganese in domestic animal food results in reduced reproductive
capabilities and deformed or poorly maturing young. Livestock
feeds usually have sufficient manganese, but beef cattle on a
high corn diet may require a supplement.
RATIONALE:
Although inhaled manganese dusts have been reported to be
toxic to humans, manganese normally is ingested as a trace
nutrient in food. The average human intake is approximately
10
mg/day (Sollman,
1957).
Very large doses of ingested manganese
can cause some disease and liver damage but these are not known
to occur in the United States. Only a few manganese toxicity
problems have been found throughout the world and these have
occurred under unique circumstances, Le, a well in Japan near a
deposit of buried batteries (McKee and Wolf,
1963).
It
is possible to partially sequester manganese with special
treatment but manganese is not removed in the conventional
treatment of domestic waters (Riddick et al.
1958: 1960).
Consumer complaints arise when manganese exceeds a concentration
of 150 ug/L in water supplies (Griffin,
1960).
These complaints
are concerned primarily with the brownish staining of laundry and
objectionable tastes in beverages. It is possible that the
presence of low concentrations of iron may intensify the adverse
effects of manganese. Manganese at concentrations of about 10 to
20
ug/L is acceptable to most consumers. A criterion for
domestic water supplies of
50
ug/L should minimize the
objectionable qua L ities,
McKee and Wolf
(1963)
summarized data on toxicity of
manganese to freshwater aquatic life. Ions of manganese are
found rarely at concentrations above
1
mg/L. The tolerance
values reported range from
1.5
mg/r,
to over
1000
mg/L. Thus,
manganese is not considered to be a problem in fresh waters.
Permanganates ha ve been reportedtokil 1 fish in
3 to
18
hours at
•
•
•
•
•
concentrations of 2.2 to 4.1 mg/L, but permanganates are not
persistent because they rapidly oxidize organic materials and are
thereby reduced and rendered nontoxic.
Few data are available on the toxicity of manganese to marine
organisms. The ambient concentration of manganese is about 2 ug/L
(Fairbridge, 1966). The material is rapidly assimilated and
bioconcentrated into nodules that are deposited on the sea floor.
The major problem with manganese may be
.
concentration in the
edible portions of molluscs, as bioaccumulation factors as high
as 12,000 have been reported
(NAS,
1974). In order to protect
against a possible health hazard to humans by manganese
accumulation in shellfish, a criterion of
100 ug/I., is
recommended
for marine water.
Manganese is not known to be a problem water consumed by
livestock. At concentrations of slightly less than 1 mg/L to
a
few milligrams per liter, manganese nay be toxic to plants from
irrigation water applied to soils with pH values lower than
6.0.
The problem may be rectified by liming soils to increase the pH.
Problems may develop with long-term (20 year) continuous
irrigation on other soils with water containing about 10 Ing/L of
manganese (NAS, 1974). But, as stated above, manganese is rarely
found in surface waters at concentrations greater than
1
mg/L.
Thus, no specific criterion for manganese in agricultural waters
is proposed. In select areas, and where acidophiLic crops ate
cultivated and irrigated, a criterion of 200 ug/L is
suggetited
for consideration.
Most industrial users of water can operate successfully where
the criterion proposed for public water supplies is observed.
Examples of industrial tolerance of manganese
in
water are
summarized for industries such as dyeing, milk processing, paper,
textiles, photography and plastics (McKee and Wolf,
1963). A
more
restrictive criterion may be needed to protect or ensure product
quality.
(QUALITY CRITERIA FOR WATER, JULY 1976) PB- 263943
SEE APPENDIX C FOR METHODOLOGY