RECECLERK’S

OFFICEWED

CONTROL BOARD

JUN 302004

STATE

OF ILLINOIS

iN THE MATTER

Pollution

Control

Board

PROPOSED AMENDMENTS TO

)

R04-25

DISSOLVED OXYGEN STANDARD

35

ILL.)

(Rulemaking

-

Water)

ADM. CODE 302.206

)

EXHIBIT LIST

First Hearing: June 29, 2004, Chicago

Exhibit 1: “An Assessment ofNational and Illinois Dissolved Oxygen Water Quality Criteria”

James E. Garvey and Matt R. Whiles (Apr. 2004)

Exhibit 2: “Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Dissolved Oxygen” USEPA (Apr. 1986)

Exhibit 3: Resume ofDennis Streicher

Exhibit 4: Copies ofletters from Dennis Streicher to various organizations concerning the

proposed rulemaking

Exhibit

5:

Resume ofJames E. Garvey

Exhibit 6: Resume ofMatt R. Whiles

Exhibit 7: From R02-19, written testimony ofRobert J. Sheehan & Table 1 “Spawning periods

for fishes in Illinois”

Exhibit 8: “Influences ofHypoxia and Hyperthermia on Fish Species Composition in Headwater

Streams” Martin A. Smale and Chalres F. Rabeni

(1995)

)

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1

An Assessment ofNational and Illinois Dissolved Oxygen

Water Quality Criteria

Prepared by:

James E. Garvey”2 and Matt R. Whiles’

‘Department of Zoology

2Fisheries and Illinois Aquaculture Center

Southern Illinois University

Carbondale, IL 62901

For:

Illinois Association of Wastewater Agencies

April 2004

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2

Executive Sunimary

Dissolved oxygen is an important limiting resource in aquatic systems and is directly

affected by human activities such as organic enrichment, increased nutrient loading, and

habitat alteration. We reviewed the published literature on responses of warmwater

freshwater systems to dynamics ofdissolved oxygen and then assessed current Illinois

and national water quality standards in light ofthese findings. For fish, aquatic insects,

freshwater mussels, and other organisms typically found in warmwater surface waters of

Illinois, reduced dissolved oxygen has long been understood to inhibit growth, survival,

and reproduction, primarily by interfering with aerobic metabolism. More recently, low

dissolved oxygen has been suggested to act as an endocrine disruptor in fish, reducing

reproductive viability. Dissolved oxygen concentrations vary widely both among and

within natural streams and lakes, although mean and minimum concentrations should

decline with organic enrichment. In systems with low oxygen minima, only organisms

specifically adapted to hypoxic conditions should persist.

Our assessment ofthe published data generally affirms the guidelines set forth for

warmwater assemblages by the 1986 U.s. Environmental Protection Agency’s national

dissolved oxygen water quality standards document. The current emphasis in Illinois on

biotic indicators for assessing the integrity ofstreams and lakes should be continued and

continually refined in our view. Conversely, the current dissolved oxygen water quality

standard set by the Illinois Pollution Control Board (minimum of

5.0

mg/L) is too

conservative and may place many aquatic systems with naturally occurring dissolved

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3

oxygen concentrations that occasionally decline below the state minimum standard in

violation. This document recommends a standard that includes seasonally appropriate

means and minima that more realistically account for natural fluctuations in dissolved

oxygen concentrations, while remaining sufficiently protective of aquatic life and life

stages. In general, our recommended standards are either equivalent to or more

conservative than the established national dissolved oxygen standards.

We recommend for surface waters in Illinois (not including Lake Michigan or wetlands;

also see Table

5):

• A 1-day minimum of5.0 mg/L spring through early summer (i.e., March 1

through June 30)

• A 7-d mean of 6.0 mg/L spring through early summer (i.e., March 1 through June

30)

• A l-d minimum

of 3.5

mg/L the remainder ofthe year (i.e., July 1 through

February 28 or 29)

• A 7-d mean minimum of 4.0 mg/L the remainder ofthe year (i.e., July 1 through

February 28 or 29)

• Areas in proximity to discharges in which dissolved oxygen concentrations can be

manipulated should be monitored closely, with daily minima occurring no more

than 3 weeks per year, not including spring through early summer (i.e., March 1

through June 30), or the l-d minimum be increased to 4.0 mg/L

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4

A 1-day minimum dissolved oxygen concentration is the lowest allowable concentration

during any given day. A 7-day mean is derived by generating time-weighted daily

averages (including the daily minimum and maximum) and then determining a running

average across 7 days. Maximum water concentrations that exceed air saturation should

be corrected (i.e., decreased) to air saturation values. Seven-day mean minima are

calculated by generating a running mean ofdaily minima across 7 days.

Seasons reflect times when most early life stages ofwarmwater fishes (i.e., eggs,

embryos, and larvae, typically 30-d post spawning) are either present (March through

June) or absent (July through February) in Illinois waters (see Table 3). Warmwater

species that spawn later during summer should have adaptations fornaturally occurring

reductions in dissolved oxygen concentrations expected to occur during warm months.

Our review of the literature revealed that many gaps in our knowledge persist about

relations among die! oxygen curves, nutrient status, and primary production. Mechanistic

research rather than correlational field studies must be conducted to develop more precise

and meaningful criteria fordissolved oxygen and other water quality measures.

Similarly, our understanding ofbiological responses to oxygen dynamics is typically

correlational. Laboratory-derived, physiological tolerance estimates rarely correspond

well to field patterns. Improved criteria that are relevant on a regional and habitat-

specific basis will require a better understanding ofhow organisms respond to

experimentally manipulated variables in natural systems.

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5

Table of Contents

Section

Page

Executive Summary

Overview

~.

Oxygen in Freshwater

Anthropogenic Influences

~

Oxygen and Monitoring

Overview ofNational and Illinois Criteria

8

Systems in Illinois

Warmwater Responses

~J.Q

Fish

~~J4

Macroinvertebrates

..~. ~

Environmental Variation in Oxygen

..22

Guidelines

National

.

27

Illinois

~

30

Assessments and Recommendations

~

Spring through Early Summer

3.6

OtherMonths

Other Considerations

~

.37

Gaps and Future Directions

~.42

Literature Cited

Table 1

Table 2

~

Table 3

Table4

Table

5

Figure 1

Figure 2

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6

Overview

This document reviews the current literature on dissolved oxygen in natural systems and~

the potential effects ofhypoxia (i.e., low dissolved oxygen concentrations) on aquatic

life. It then evaluates the current Illinois dissolved oxygen water quality standard

(Illinois Pollution Control Board 302.206, 302.502) and the national criteria (Chapman

1986) in light ofthis information. The final sections make recommendations for re-

evaluating and modifying current Illinois state water quality criteria that are based on

published research on natural fluctuations in aquatic systems and physiological tolerances

ofnative aquatic life. We conclude with recommendations for research that, in ourview,

will improve the scientific foundation underlying dissolved oxygen criteria for freshwater

systems in Illinois.

Oxygen infreshwater habitats

Dissolved oxygen is a critical resource in freshwater systems because it is essential to

aquatic organisms for aerobic respiration, and thus most biological activity and associated

processes. Further, because of oxygen’s low solubility in water, it is less abundant, and

thus more limiting, in aquatic habitats compared to terrestrial habitats. The amount of

dissolved oxygen in freshwater habitats that is available to organisms is a function of

many biotic and abiotic factors including metabolic processes (photosynthesis and

respiration), temperature, salinity, atmospheric and water pressure, and diffusion.

Dissolved oxygen that is available to aquatic biota is generally measured and expressed

as mg/L or percentage saturation. Depending on the array ofaforementioned physical

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7

and biological factors, dissolved oxygen levels in natural freshwater habitats can range

from near zero (anoxic or anaerobic conditions) to supersaturated.

Anthropogenic influences on oxygen in freshwater habitats

Along with the myriad natural process that influence dissolved oxygen levels in

freshwater habitats, many human activities can have profound effects. In particular, the

addition ofnutrients (nutrient enrichment and eutrophication) leads to reduced oxygen

concentrations because ofincreased productivity and biochemical oxygen demand

(BOD). Numerous other types ofpollution (e.g., sediments, thermal discharges,

pesticides) and other types ofanthropogenic disturbances (e.g., stream channelization,

catchment logging) can influence oxygen levels because they influence the combination

ofbiotic and abiotic factors that control it. Oxygen depletion as a result of eutrophication

receives most attention because this is a prevalent problem associated with human

activities (e.g., sewage effluent, agricultural activities, urbanization) that is often linked to

reduced water quality and the loss and degradation ofnatural resources such as fisheries

(Cooper 1993). Eutrophication has also received much recent attention because of

related large-scale issues such as the hypoxic zone in the Gulf ofMexico, whichhas been

linked to elevated nutrient loads in the Mississippi River and its tributaries (Rabalais et

al. 2002).

Dissolved oxygen and water quality monitoring

Given that (i) oxygen is a crucial, limiting resource to life in freshwater habitats, (ii)

human activities have great potential to influence it, and (iii) it is relatively easy to

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8

monitor, regulatory agencies logically focus on dissolved oxygen levels for setting water

quality standards and monitoring conditions. Most frequently, associated monitoring

activities focus on daily minimum levels (often quantified pre-dawn) or averages over a

period oftime. Although there is general agreement that dissolved oxygen levels are an

important component ofwater quality standards and monitoring activities, it is less clear

how standards for given regions and habitats should be set and how violations ofthese

standards are assessed (e.g., daily minimums vs. weekly averages vs. dynamics ofdie!

oscillations). More recently, biological communities, usually fish and/or

macroinvertebrate assemblages (e.g., biomonitoring), have become increasingly

important components ofsurface water monitoring programs because they integrate and

reflect the conditions within the habitat, including, among other things, oxygen levels and

the factors that influence them (Plalkin et a!. 1989, Loeb and Spacie 1993, Barbour et a!.

1999).

National and State Criteria

Because oxygen is typically the primary factor limiting aquatic life, several attempts have

been made to develop specific criteria in aquatic systems (Federal Water Pollution

Control Administration 1968, National Academy ofSciences and National Academy of

Engineering 1972, Magnuson et al. 1 979a). The current USEPA national standard for

dissolved oxygen (Chapman 1986) was built on this past work. The national criteria

document adopts a two-concentration structure with both a mean and a minimum and

includes specific criteria for both cool-water and warm-water systems.

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9

The Illinois dissolved oxygen criterion used at present was established by the Illinois

Pollution Control Board three decades ago in the early 1970s (R. Mosher, Illinois EPA,

Division ofWater Pollution Control, Standards Section, personal communication). It is

based on a simple minimum allowable dissolved oxygen concentration. Setting such

minima was common practice for establishing contaminant loads in the early regulatory

setting following passage ofthe Clean Water Act (Chapman 1986). The current Illinois

criterion, based on these early decisions, does not incorporate natural cycling in dissolved

oxygen nor is it supported by the most recent scientific information on responses of

aquatic life to hypoxic conditions.

Systems in Illinois

With the exception ofthe Lake Michigan system, most inland waters in Illinois are

dominated by warmwater, non-salmonid faunal assemblages. Although the term

warmwater has been used for decades, a formal definition is still lacking (but see

Magnuson et al. 1 979b). In this document, warmwater systems are defined as those that

are typically diverse, centrarchid-dominated, and common in the Midwestern and

southern United States (Magnuson et al. 1979b). Fishes in these systems can be quite

tolerant ofat least temporary periods oflow dissolved oxygen (Chapman 1986, Smale

and Rabeni 1 995a), although certain species such as smallmouth bass

(Micropterus

dolomieu)

are more sensitive.

Since the national criterion for dissolved oxygen was developed, fish continue to be

emphasized because oftheircommercial and recreational importance. Some

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10

macroinvertebrates, such as burrowing mayflies

(Hexagenia

spp.) and freshwater mussels

(Li-Yen 1998), are far less tolerant of prolonged exposure to hypoxic conditions than

most fish (Chapman 1986, Winter et al. 1996, Corkum et a!. 1997). However, this may

be expected because many sensitive macroinvertebrate species occupy pristine, well-

oxygenated benthic habitats or are riffle-dwelling. Riffles have a high dissolved oxygen

flux and organisms persisting in these environments might be expected to have high

oxygen requirements. Assessments of aquatic life responses to hypoxic conditions need

to account for the physiological, behavioral, and life history adaptations of the resident

organisms in the context oftheir natural environment. When developing oxygen criteria,

how natural cycles in dissolved oxygen structure warmwater assemblages must be

considered.

Warmwater Organisms and Dissolved Oxygen

Setting a dissolved oxygen criterion for aquatic systems that is adequately protective to

aquatic life is challenging because ofthe wide adaptations that exist among organisms.

In warmwater systems, the richness and abundance of species within aquatic systems can

often be explained by variation in dissolved oxygen, because only the most tolerant

species can persist in systems with frequent or chronic hypoxia. An extensive survey of

Missouri streams revealed that low oxygen, rather than high temperature, is the primary

factor limiting fish distributions (Smale and Rabeni 1 995a,b). Increases in the dissolved

oxygen concentration and general improvement in water quality ofthe western basin of

Lake Erie are largely responsible for improved fish and benthic macroinvertebrate

communities (Ludsin et al. 2001). Similar improvements in fish communities occurred in

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11

Swedish streams when dissolved oxygen increased and water quality improved across a

thirty-year period (Eklov et al. 1998, 1999).

Many physiological responses within aquatic organisms occur to ensure survival under

hypoxic conditions. Many species will initially increase ventilation to increase the

exchange ofoxygen across the respiratory surface (e.g., gills; Beamish 1964, Fernandes

et al. 1995, MacCormick et at. 2003). Tolerance to hypoxia is ultimately affected by the

capacityofblood to uptake and transport oxygen. Furmisky et al. (2003) found a marked

difference in blood oxygen content oflargemouth bass and smailmouth bass

(M

salmoides)

under hypoxia. Largemouth bass blood had a higher affinity for oxygen than

that ofsmailmouth bass. Further, smallmouth bass blood contained eleyated

concentrations ofcatecholamines, stress hormones that initiate a number ofphysiological

mechanisms that increase blood oxygen transport. In contrast to species that actively

regulate oxygen concentration, other species exposed to hypoxia, typically those that are

relatively inactive in benthic habitats, will reduce activity and metabolism, thereby

decreasing oxygen demand oftissues (Crocker and Cech 1997, Hagerman 1998). Some

organisms rely on anaerobic glycolysis and other anaerobic biochemical pathways to fuel

their metabolism during temporary hypoxia (e.g., common carp, freshwater mussels),

although the typical adaptation in habitats with chronically low dissolved oxygen

concentrations appears to be aerobic metabolism plus efficient oxygen uptake rather than

anaerobic metabolism (Childress and Siebel 1998, Wu 2002). When determining the

dissolved oxygen criteria for a suite of systems, the interaction between physiological

adaptations and natural environmental dissolved oxygen-cycles must be considered.

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12

Aquatic organisms will also respond behaviorally to low dissolved oxygen in the

environment. Organisms usually move away from areas oflow oxygen to those ofhigher

concentrations when oxygen concentrations are locally heterogeneous. This may most

commonly occur in vegetated areas of lake littoral zones in which oxygen concentrations

vary both horizontally and vertically, with areas oflow and high oxygen adjacent to each

other (Miranda et al. 2000). Other organisms such as some stream fishes and amphipods

use the air-water interface when dissolved oxygen levels are low (Henry and Danielopol

1998). Some invertebrate and vertebrate species must trade-offthe use ofhypoxic areas

with the risk ofoccupying other normoxic areas that may have a greater risk ofpredation

or lower food availability (Burleson et al. 2001). This has been well documented for

zooplankton and

Chaoborus

using the hypoxic hypolimnion oflakes as a refuge from

predators (Tessier and Welser 1991, Popp and Hoagland 1994, Rahel and Nutzman 1995,

Dawidowicz et al. 2001). More recently hypoxic areas have been shown to be important

for small fish evading predators (Chapman et al. 1996, Miranda and Hodges 2000,

Burleson et al, 2001) or using these areas to forage (Rahel and Nutzman 1995).

Chapman (1986) found that the early life stages (e.g., eggs and larvae) ofaquatic

organisms are the most sensitive to hypoxia. For manyofthese organisms, much

exchange ofoxygen occurs cutaneously (Jobling 1995) and thus is not expected to be

well-regulated. After the oxygen regulating structures such as gills are formed, the

ability to regulate oxygen and thus tolerate hypoxia should improve, with the structure of

gills and associated respiratory behavior reflecting species-specific oxygen demands and

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13

naturally occurring oxygen concentrations (Jobling 1995). In fresh, warm-water systems

such as those in Illinois, many benthic areas where fish may deposit eggs in nests can

become hypoxic or anoxic. The behavior ofnest tending and fanning in adults increases

the oxygen available to eggs and embryos, offsetting the effect oflow oxygen (Hale et al.

2003). Other species in these systems have adaptations that allow their eggs and larvae to

avoid anoxic sediments including semibuoyant eggs (e.g., asian carps) or adhesive eggs

that attach to vegetation (e.g.; northern pike, yellow perch). Riffle-dwelling or gravel-

spawning species rely on rapid exchange ofwater to keep eggs oxygenated (Corbett and

Powles 1986). How these adaptations allow aquatic species to cope with natural cycles•

and spatial heterogeneity ofdissolved oxygen must be considered when developing

specific criteria. Because most species in Illinois spawn in spring when flow rates are

high and temperature-induced hypoxia is low, seasonal fluctuations in dissolved oxygen

must also be factored into the evaluation ofdissolved oxygen criteria for Illinois.

Chapman (1986) pointed out that very few investigators have used conventional toxicity

tests to generate LC5Os or EC5Os and thus find critical dissolved oxygen concentrations

ofaquatic organisms. With a few rare exceptions (i.e., Nebeker et al. 1992), this has not

changed since 1986. Additionally, no standardized method for conducting acute tests

with dissolved oxygen yet exists. As a consequence, duration and intensity of

acclimation and exposure to hypoxic conditions differ among studies. Oxygen control in

studies is typically achieved either by vacuum degassing or nitrogen stripping, which

may elicit different physiological responses. Acute effects ofhypoxia have often been

quantified as an interaction with other factors such as contaminants, temperature, and

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14

food availability. For sublethal tests, effects have been quantified as impairment of

behavior, reproduction, or growth. Chronic tests in the published literature are rarer than

acute ones, and are assumed to include the most sensitive life stages. Because most

dissolved oxygen tests fail to include a full life cycle or, at the least, embryonic through

larval stages, these tests fall short in assessing chronic effects (but see Nebeker et al.

1992). In the field, hypoxia often only occurs temporarily because dissolved oxygen

concentrations fluctuate daily. Hence, quantifying recovery upon return to normoxia may

also be an important requisite for standardized testing (Person-Le Ruyet 2003).

Fish Responses to Oxygen Stress

Most of the studies quantifying critical dissolved oxygen minima for warmwater fish

species (i.e., nonsalmonids) in Illinois predate the 1990s. A review ofthese studies

revealed that adults and juveniles of most species survive dissolved oxygen

concentrations that occasionally decline below 3 mg/l (Chapman 1986). Higher

temperatures generally increase the critical dissolved oxygen concentration necessary for

survival. Many warmwater species can survive prolonged periods oflow dissolved

oxygen concentrations (Downing and Merkens 1957, Moss and Scott 1961, Smale and

Rabeni 1995a,b). Smale and Rabeni (1995a) determined critical oxygen minima for 35

fish species that inhabit small warmwaterstreams (Table 1). These critical

concentrations, defined as the oxygen concentration at which ventilation ceased, ranged

from 0.49 mg/lto 1.5 mgIL (Table 1; Smale and Rabeni 1995a). The current national 1-

day minimum dissolved oxygen criterion for adult life stages is 3 mgIL (Chapman 1986;

Table 2). With the exception ofthe oxygen minima set by Smale and Rabeni (1985a) and

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15

tested in Smale and Rabeni (1995b), no studies to our knowledge have explicitly

determined how the criteria set forth by the Illinois Pollution Control Board or the US

EPA national water quality document translate to field distributions offish. Smale and

Rabeni’s work suggest that the current 1-day minimum set by the national criterion for

warmwater fish is sufficiently protective ofstream fish assemblages.

Because early life stages are typically more sensitive, separate national dissolved oxygen

criteria have been set for them (Table 2; Chapman 1986). An in situ test ofthe effect of

dissolved oxygen concentration on survival ofembryonic and larval bluegill, northern

pike, pumpkinseed, and smallmouth bass was conducted at spawning sites in Minnesota

(Peterka and Kent 1976). The investigators found that tolerance ofshort-term exposure

to hypoxia declined from embryonic to larval stages. Upon transforming to larvae, many

fishes become free-swimming and join the open-water ichthyoplankton. Hence, some

larvae departing potentially hypoxic benthic spawning areas may no longer require high

tolerance oflow dissolved oxygen concentrations under natural conditions. Conversely,

other species with benthic larvae (e.g., lampreys) should be quite sensitive to chronic low

oxygen at the substrate-water interface.

To find tolerance for dissolved oxygen, we digitized embryonic and larval survival data

from Figure 1 in Chapman (1986). We then subjected the data for Chapman’s “tolerant”

warmwater species (largemouth bass, black crappie, white sucker, and white bass) and

“intolerant” species (northern pike, channel catfish, walleye, and smallmouth bass) to two

sets of analyses, both of which are designed to isolate an “inflection” point in the curves

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16

ofdissolved oxygen concentration versus percent survival (relative to controls). The

nature ofthe data did not allow us to conduct a probit analysis widely used in toxicology.

Rather, in the first analysis, we used non-linear regression to fit the best models to the

tolerant (Michealis-Mentin) and intolerant (logistic) species data. A second analysis was

used to identify the point of major change in the distributions for both tolerant and

intolerant fishes. This two-dimensional Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (2DKS) has been used

successfully for finding major breakpoints in bivariate data, for example when survival

changes from consistently high to variable beyond or below some threshold contaminant

concentration (Garvey et al. 1998a).

For the non-linear regression analysis, the curves fit the data moderately well (Figure 1).

The half-saturation dissolved oxygen concentration (similar toan LC5O value) for the

tolerant species was 2.8 mg/i. For the intolerant species, the dissolved oxygen

concentration at which 50 survival occurred was much higher at 4.3 mg/L. In the

2DKS analysis, the threshold dissolved oxygen concentrations were 3.72 and 3.75 mg/L

for the tolerant and intolerant distributions, respectively, suggesting that survival offish

varied below these values and was consistently high above them. A conservative

interpretation is that intolerant embryos and larvae are indeed more sensitive to low

oxygen concentrations and that survival should begin to decline below 4.3 mg/L. Early

life stages oftolerant species should only begin to show survival effects below 3.7 mg/L.

Sublethal effects oflow dissolved oxygen on growth are likely more common than direct

lethal ones. Thus, carefully quantifying sublethal effects is an important requisite for

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17

setting criteria for fish and other organisms. Low dissolved oxygen concentrations can

reduce growth by reducing foraging behavior and increasing metabolic costs. A review

conducted by JRB Associates (1984) summarized growth responses ofnorthern pike,

largemouth bass, channel catfish, and yellow perch to reduced dissolved oxygen

concentrations (data sources: Stewart et al. 1967, Adelman and Smith 1972, Carlson et

a!. 1980). For northern pike, growth declined from 16 to 25 between

5

and 4 mg/L,

with growth reduced by

35at

the lowest concentration of3 mg/I. Growth ofchannel

catfish declined from 7 to 13 between

5

and 4 mg/L, with a 29 reduction at 2 mg/L.

For largemouth bass and yellow perch, strong reductions in growth did not occur until

concentrations were 2 mg/L, with growth reduced by 51 for largemouth bass and 22

for yellow perch.

Extrapolating growth results from laboratory experiments to the field maybe

problematic, primarily because ofdifferences in food availability. Although reduced

oxygen may reduce consumption, fish in laboratory studies may have easy access to food

and thus not suffer the same impairment as counterparts in the field (Chapman 1986).

Chapman (1986) compared the data compiled by JRB Associates (1984) to those of

Brake (1972) who conducted a pond experiment exploring the effect ofreduced oxygen

on largemouth bass growth. Brake found that growth oflargemouth bass was reduced by

as much as 34 at dissolved oxygen concentrations

(4-5

mg/L) that had little effect in the

laboratory. Similarly, RNA-DNA ratios (an index ofgrowth where high RNA

concentrations relative to DNA suggests rapid protein synthesis and growth) were higher

forbluegill under normoxic conditions than counterparts exposed to hypoxic conditions

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18

in the natural environment (Aday et al. 2000). However, this effect of hypoxiacould not

be replicated under laboratory conditions (Aday et a!. 2000). Clearly, field conditions,

including reduced food, changing temperatures, increased activity rates, and fluctuating

oxygen levels, need to be incorporated into studies quantifying the intermediate- and

long-term effects ofhypoxia on growth.

Few studies have quantified the effect ofreduced dissolved oxygen concentration on the

reproductive viability ofadult fish. Recently, hypoxia has been shown to be an endocrine

disruptor, affecting fish reproductive success (Wu et al. 2003). Common carp exposed to

chronic hypoxia had reduced levels of serum testosterone and estradiol. These reduced

levels led to decreased gonadal development in both males and females. Spawning

success, sperm motility, fertilization success, hatching rate, and larval survival were all

compromised through this mechanism. Loss of reproductive capacity through reduced

energy intake or increased metabolic costs has been the more typical mechanism

implicated. For species in which adult behavior is important (e.g., nest guarding), adults

may abandon nests or cease parental care below some threshold dissolved oxygen

concentration where physiological costs outweigh the benefit ofsuccessfullyproducing

offspring (Hale et a!. 2003).

The timing and periodicity ofspawning should correspond with a host of ecological

factors including the availability of food, avoidance ofpredators, and overlap with

optimum abiotic conditions (e.g., temperature and oxygen concentration; Winemiller and

Rose 1992). Obviously, all ofthese conditions typically do not co-occur in time,

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19

necessitating trade-offs forreproducing fish and other aquatic organisms. The majority

of warmwater fishes in Illinois spawn during spring through early summer (i.e., as early

as March and as late as June; Table 3), largely because this (i) allows young fish to

overlap with a spring pulse in primaryproduction and (ii) provides enough time during

the growing season for offspring to become large and survive winter (Garvey et al.

1 998b). During spring, oxygen concentrations in most stream and lake systems should

not be expected to be low, because the temperature-dependent oxygen capacity-o-fwater

is not limited, lakes are typically unstratified and mixed, and seasonal production and

thus whole-system respiration has not yet peaked. However, a few species do spawn

continuously through summer when natural oxygen concentrations may be expected to

fluctuate and may reach limiting levels. Under these circumstances, fishes must have

adaptations to reproduce successfully including parental care (e.g., nest fanning), riffle-

dwelling offspring, or oxygen-tolerant eggs, embryos, and larvae.

Macroinvertebrate responses to oxygen stress

Macroinvertebrate (typically larval stages of aquatic insects and freshwater mussels)

responses to low oxygen situations have been characterized at the community,

population, and individual levels. Macroinvertebrate communities and assemblages in

habitats with low dissolved oxygen levels are generally dominated by taxa that breathe

atmospheric oxygen through respiratory tubes or the use of transportable air stores (e.g.,

pulmonate gastropods, hemipterans, and many dipteran and coleopteran taxa) and/or

those with other adaptations such as some oligochaetes and

Chironomus

midges with

hemoglobin in theirblood (Hynes 1960, Wiederholm 1984). Other tolerant taxa, such as

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20

the fingernail clam

Pisidium,

can perform anaerobis and go through periods ofdormancy

(Hamburger et al. 2000), and thus may also be abundant in low oxygen environments. In

contrast, taxa associated with highly oxygenated environments, such as many Plecoptera,

Ephemeroptera, and Trichoptera taxa, which primarily use tracheal gills for respiration,

are usually underrepresented or absent in oxygen-limited freshwater habitats. These

patterns are the basis for numerous macroinvertebrate-based biomonitoring programs

because they are fairly consistent and reliable indicators ofincreasing organic pollution

and associated decreases in oxygen availability, and can thus reflect overall system health

by integrating spatial and temporal conditions associated with pollution and associated

oxygen stress (e.g., Hilsenhoff 1987, Hilsenhoff 1988, Lenat 1993, Barbour et al. 1999).

Considering the incredible diversity offreshwater invertebrates, there is relatively little

information regarding their oxygen requirements and tolerances. As would be expected

for such a diverse group of organisms, studies to date indicate that macroinvertebrate

responses to oxygen stress at both the population and individual levels vary greatly.

Lethal effects are obvious and well documented for many taxa, particularly more

sensitive taxa such as members ofthe Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera (Fox

Ct

al. 1937, Benedetto 1970, Nebeker 1972, Gaufin 1973). These studies and others

(reviewed by Chapman 1986) indicate a range oflethal minima from 0.6 mg/L for the

midge

Tanytarsus

to

5.2

mg/L for an ephemerellid mayfly, and a dissolved oxygen 96-

hour LC-50 concentration ofbetween 3-4 mg/L for about half ofall insects examined.

Similarly, tolerance to hypoxia ranges dramatically among freshwater mussels, a group

that is ofspecial concern because population declines are widespread and many species

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21

are now threatened or endangered. In laboratory experiments, survival of

Villosa

spp., a

riffle-dwelling genus, was compromised under hypoxic conditions (2 mg/l), whereas no

negative survival effects occurred for other species such as

Elliptio

spp. and

Pyganodon

grandis

(Li-Yen 1998). Many of these values must be considered within the context in

which they were obtained, as the most sensitive taxaoften live in flowing water habitats

and diffusion ofoxygen into gills and other permeable surfaces is partly a function of

water velocity because it determines the replacement rate ofwater around the diffusion

surface. Using closed recirculating systems, Sparks and Strayer (1998) examined

responses ofjuvenile

Elliptio coinpianata

to varying dissolved oxygen levels and found a

sharp differences in behavior (e.g., gaping, siphon extending) between 2 and 4 mg/L, and

individuals exposed to concentrations of1.3 mg/L for a week died.

Along with lethal effects, there are also important sublethal responses. The most

commonly reported sublethal effect oflow oxygen levels on macroinvertebrates is

reduced growth. Reduced growth rates occur because ofdecreased aerobic respiration

rates and the use ofenergy reserves, which would normally be used for growth and

reproduction, forbody movements such as ventilating and/or other mechanisms for

increasing oxygen uptake (Fox and Sidney 1953, Erikson et al. 1996). Pesticides and

other toxicants, which are often present in polluted habitats where oxygen stress occurs,

can further reduce invertebrate tolerances to low oxygen conditions because they often

alter respiration rates themselves (e.g., Maki et a!. 1973, Kapoor 1976). For freshwater

mussels, the influence ofother factors including siltation, altered habitat, and loss offish

hosts for reproduction may interact with low dissolved oxygen concentrations to reduce

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22

growth and reproductive success (Watters 1999). The consequences of sublethal effects

such as reduced growth are important at the population level because adult female size is

positively correlated with fecundity in a variety ofinvertebrates (Vannote and Sweeney

1980, Sweeney and Vannote 1981).

Environmental variation in dissolved oxygen

Dissolved oxygen concentrations fluctuate in natural systems. Even relatively pristine

systems mayhave spatial heterogeneity in oxygen concentrations that requires organisms

to move or tolerate occasional spates ofhypoxia. Because hypoxia is often a natural

phenomenon, most species have some adaptations that allow them to tolerate

occasionally low oxygen, while other species are specifically adapted to occupy areas of

chronically low oxygen (e.g., profundal amphipods; Hamburger et al. 2000, MacNeil et

a!. 2001). This section explores factors influencing variation in aquatic systems of

Illinois, with implications for the growth, survival, and reproductive success ofresident

organisms.

Most field studies exploring ecological effects ofdissolved oxygen correlate variation in

dissolved oxygen concentrations with the distributions offish and other organisms. If a

correlation occurs, then investigators infer that dissolved oxygen is the major factor

underlying observed distributions. The most typical occurrence ofhypoxia in natural

freshwater systems arises in stratified lakes during summer. Hypolimnetic (lower strata)

waters of lakes often become depleted ofoxygen during this season, causing fish and

other organisms to avoid these areas. A project quantifying the vertical and horizontal

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23

spatial distribution offishes in Lake ofEgypt, Illinois during summer through fall 2003

strongly demonstrated this pattern (Sherman and Garvey, unpublished data). Threadfin

shad, a species with a low tolerance to hypoxia, and hybrid striped bass, a more tolerant

fish, were sampled with gill nets at three depths in three locations of the lake. Spatial

distribution ofthese species was affected by the presence ofhypoxic hypolimnetic water,

with consistently scarce abundance below 4 mg/L dissolved oxygen (Figure 2). This.

research confirms the long-held assumption that an increase in hypoxic hypolimnetic

water, expected to occur in relatively shallow, eutrophic systems, should severely restrict

habitat for fish. and other organisms (Nurnberg 1995a,b, 2002). Combinations of

suboptimal warm temperatures and low oxygen during summer months can lead to

“summerkills” offish, particularly those species that have poor tolerance to hypoxia (e.g.,

shad). Although oxygen stratification is not prevalent during winter months,

“winterkills” of fish may occur by the natural, biologically driven depletion ofoxygen

under snow-covered ice in lakes (Klinger et a!. 1982, Fang and Stefan 2000, Danylchuk

and Tonn 2003). This should be more typical in the northern portion ofIllinois where

winters are more severe.

Dissolved oxygen concentrations in streams can be influenced by many natural

environmental factors. Groundwater inundation of streams may provide cool

temperatures that are preferred by aquatic organisms such as fish during summermonths

(Matthews and Berg 1997). However, the tradeoffofseeking these waters may be that

they are severely depleted in oxygen (Matthews and Berg 1997). Many streams undergo

a natural, often cyclic pattern offlooding and drying. During stream drying, isolated

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24

pools provide refuge for stream organisms. However, extremes in temperature, increases

in nitrogenous wastes (e.g., ammonia) and salts, and reductions in oxygen can tax the

performance ofresident organisms (Ostrand and Marks 2000, Ostrand and Wilde 2001).

Not surprisingly, fishes native to these systems tolerate extreme conditions such as very

low dissolved oxygen (Cech et al. 1990). Typically, oxygen reductions in streams and

other aquatic systems are caused by an increase in oxygen demand ofthe microbes and

perhaps autotrophs (particularly during night) through organic enrichment. However,

respiration ofabundant organisms such as the exotic zebra mussel can be sufficiently

high to decrease dissolved oxygen concentrations within lotic systems (Caraco et al.

2000).

Many examples of alterations ofaquatic communities with either spatial or temporal

changes in dissolved oxygen concentrations exist. Natural variation in dissolved oxygen

concentration occurs in the floodplains ofstreams and rivers, affecting the distribution of

fish. For example, larval sunfish and shad abundance were associated with spatial

variation in dissolved oxygen concentration in wetlands of the Atchafalaya River in

Louisiana (Fontenot et al. 2001). When increased connectivity through flooding

increased dissolved oxygen concentration (above 2 mg/L) in this system, larval fish

became abundant, likely improving recruitment. Hence, natural wetlands with high

connectivity to their respective river or lake should have high survival offish and other

organisms. Indeed, reductions in connectivity due to levee construction and

sedimentation have been implicated in reductions in local species richness ofwetlands

and adjacent ecosystems. With improvements in water quality during the past few

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25

decades, increases in dissolved oxygen due to reductions in organic enrichment have

enhanced fish species richness in many systems ranging from small streams (Eklov et al.

1999) to the Great Lakes (Ludsin et al. 2001).

Although field associations between oxygen and species assemblages are somewhat

common, few field studies have attempted to link the oxygen-driven distribution of

organisms in the field with laboratory-derived critical oxygen minima. We know ofno

currentpublished literature that explicitly links the distribution oforganisms to the

warmwater dissolved oxygen criteria set by either the national (Chapman 1986) or

Illinois water quality standards. Probably the most extensive combined field and

laboratory project that tested a specific

a priori

oxygen criterion was initiated by Smale

and Rabeni (1995a, b; Table 1). Oxygen minima in the eighteen headwater streams in

which they worked ranged from 0.8 to 6.0 mg/L during spring through summer 1987 and

1988. Dissolved oxygen concentrations and temperatures were quantified at least

monthly, and low dissolved oxygen concentrations were most frequent during warm days

with low to no flow. A multivariate analysis revealed that oxygen minima affected fish

assemblages more than temperature. Temperature maxima were only correlatedwith fish

assemblage composition in well oxygenated sites. Thus, oxygen concentration was the

“template” affecting fish success, with temperature only being important when oxygen

concentrations were high.

Smale and Rabeni

(1995b)

used the laboratory-derived oxygen minima summarized in

Table 1 to generate a hypoxia tolerance index. This index was calculated by multiplying

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26

the critical oxygen minimum for each species by its frequency of occurrence at each site.

The values for each species were then summed to derive a site-specific index value.

Mean dissolved oxygen and the hypoxia tolerance index were strongly positively

correlated (r=0.85) among sites. Further, both oxygen minima and hypoxia index values

differed among stream reach categories. Sites within the relatively stable, steep Ozark

region streams had higher values than intermittent, lower gradient, more agricultural

Prairie region streams. This research provides a framework by which streams might be

characterized by fish responses to expected oxygen minima. Much like other indices, the

fish assemblage integrates the long-term oxygen regime within streams, without frequent

and costly water quality monitoring. However, the relative contribution ofhuman-

induced enrichment and natural factors to oxygen concentrations and hypoxia index

values in the streams were not explored in this study.

Identifying critical oxygen minima appears to be a potentially useful way for

characterizing systems and setting standards for regulation ofdissolved oxygen.

However, fluctuations in dissolved oxygen may also be important, influencing the ability

for organisms to persist. Although we have a strong understanding ofthe mechanisms

underlying fluctuations ofdissolved oxygen in aquatic systems, the extent ofcycling has

not been well documented. Rather, most field studies quantifying oxygen concentrations

in aquatic systems rely on temporally and spatially static point estimates. We do not have

a clear set ofexpectations for the spatial extent, duration, frequency, or magnitude of

dissolved oxygen fluctuations in lotic and lentic aquatic ecosystems. Nor do we clearly

understand how organic enrichment and other physical changes affect many aspects of

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27

oxygen dynamics. Organic enrichment should increase the spatial extent ofhypoxia

within aquatic systems. Further, enrichment should lower mean dissolved oxygen

concentrations, decrease minimum oxygen levels, and potentially dampen daily cycles in

oxygen, with important implications for the structure ofaquatic communities.

Understanding the dynamics of oxygen should be particularly important for systems in

which organisms have no refuge from hypoxic areas.

National water quality criteriafor dissolved oxygen

National water quality criteria for dissolved oxygen are based primarily on research on

the effects oflow dissolved oxygen on the growth, survival, and reproduction offishes.

Chapman (1986) reviewed information on these relationships and developed standards

now used by the USEPA. Chapman’s recommendations are separated into criteria for

coidwater (containing I or more species ofsalmonid Bailey et al. 1970 or other

coidwater or coolwater species that are similar in requirements) and warmwater fishes,

and further divided into early life stages and other life stages (Table 2). Chapman’s

(1986) criteria reflect dissolved oxygen levels that are

0.5

mg/L above those that would

be expected to result in slight impairment ofproduction, thus representing values that lie

between no impairment and slight impairment. Hence each value is a threshold below

which some impairment is expected. However, there is possibility ofslight impairment if

criteria concentrations are barely maintained for considerable lengths-of time (Chapman

1986).

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I

28

For averages, the period ofaveraging is important and should be a moving average for

the period of interest. Seven-day averages are used because the early life stages offish

exist for short periods and are very sensitive to oxygen stress during this period. Ifmore

than seven days are included in the averaging, oxygen stress to early life stages during the

critical period may be underestimated. Longer averaging periods (e.g., 30 days) can be

used forother life stages. Daily averages can be reasonably approximated from daily

maximum and minimum readings if diel cycles are sinusoidal. Ifdiel cycles are not close

to sinusoidal, time weighted averaging can be used. However, with the increasing

availability and affordability ofdata logging oxygen meters, estimating daily averages

with these methods is becoming obsolete and monitoring dissolved oxygen

concentrations over time is becoming easier and more accurate. For averaging, daily

maximum values that are above air saturation cannot be used (e.g., they should be

adjusted to 100 air saturation) because they will artificially inflate daily averages and

do not represent any benefits to fishes (Stewart et al. 1967).

Daily minimum values are near the lethal thresholds for sensitive species and are

included to prevent acute stress and/or mortality ofthese sensitive species. During die!

cycling ofdissolved oxygen, minimum values below the acceptable constant exposure

levels are tolerated as long as the properly calculated averages (see above) meet or

exceed criteria and the minimum values are not obviously causing stress or mortality. In

some cases (i.e. where large oscillations in die! cycles ofdissolved oxygen concentrations

occur), mean criteria are met but mean minimum criteria are violated repeatedly. In these

cases, the mean minimum criteria are the regulatory focus.

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29

In summary, daily minima are the lowest dissolved oxygen concentrations that occur

each day (Table 4). Seven-day mean minima are calculated by averaging the daily

minima across seven days (Table 4). If only a maximum and minimum daily temperature

is available, a 7-day mean is calculated by averaging the daily means ofthe maximum

and minimum and then averaging across seven days (Table 4). It would be more

desirable to generate a time-weighted daily average ofmultiple (or continuous)

temperatures, including the maximum and minimum. Ifdaily maxima exceed the air-

saturation concentration (in Table 4, 11 mg/L), then the maximum is adjusted to that

concentration before inclusion in the means.

To account for the unique problems associated with point discharges in which dissolved

oxygen concentrations can be manipulated (henceforth manipulatable discharges),

Chapman (1986) recommended that daily minimum values below the acceptable 7-day

mean minimum be limited to 3 weeks per year or that the acceptable one-day minimum

be increased to

4.5

mg/L for coldwater fishes and 3.5 mg/L for warmwater fishes.

Under some natural conditions (e.g., wetlands), expected dissolved oxygen

concentrations may be lower than means or minima set by the national criterion. Under

these circumstances, the minimum acceptable concentration would be 90 percent ofthe

natural concentration. A low “natural concentration” is defined by Chapman (1986) as

naturally occurring mean or minimum dissolved oxygen concentrations that are less than

110 percent ofthe applicable criteria means, minima, orboth.

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30

Illinois water quality criteriafor dissolved oxygen

The current Illinois general use water quality standard (Illinois Pollution Control Board,

302.206) permits dissolved oxygen concentrations to be less than 6.0 mg/L no more than

16 hours a day. At no time can dissolved oxygen concentrations decline below 5.0 rng/L.

This criterion is similar to that set by the USEPA in 1976, which stated that dissolved

oxygen concentrations should not decline below

5.0

mg/L in aquatic systems (USEPA

1976). This early national standard was influenced heavily by a joint National Academy

ofSciences and National Academy ofEngineering Report on water quality in 1972 that.

encompassed a single dissolved oxygen criterion for coldwater and warmwater species.

Unlike the current national criterion (Chapman 1986, previous section), this earlier

national standard and the current Illinois standard are based on a single minimum, rather

than acknowledging that fluctuations may occur, necessitating the inclusion ofan

average. It also does not develop separate criteria for different taxonomic groups (e.g.,

coldwater versus warmwater fishes), systems (e.g., semi-permanent streams versus

permanent lakes), or ecoregions (e.g., central corn belt versus interior river lowland).

Illinois EPA summarizes the state’s water quality in accordance with Section 305(b) of

the Clean Water Act (IL EPA 2002). Annual reports are generated that assess the quality

of surface and groundwaters ofthe state. In general, surface waters are divided into

streams, lakes, and Lake Michigan, ofwhich we will focus primarily on assessments for

streams and lakes. Several monitoring programs provide data for surface water quality

assessment including the Ambient Water Quality Monitoring Network (AWQMN),

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31

Intensive Basin Surveys (IBS), Facility-Related Stream Surveys (FRSS), the Ambient

Lake Monitoring Program (ALMP), the Illinois Clean Lakes Monitoring Program

(ICLP), the Volunteer Lake Monitoring Program (VLMP), and the Source Water

Assessment Program (SWAP).

Illinois EPA has adopted several designated use categories for water including aquatic

life, primary contact (swimming), secondary contact (recreation), public water supply,

fish consumption, and indigenous aquatic life (ILEPA 2002). In this report, we

summarize the applicability ofdissolved oxygen standards primarily for the aquatic life.

use designation, which is intended to provide full support for aquatic organisms. The

indigenous aquatic life designation is reserved for systems in Illinois which do not fall

under Illinois EPA’s general use designation (e.g., Lake Calumet and shipping canals).

We do not explore the applicability ofstandards forthese nonindigenous use waters,

although the criterion for dissolved oxygen is a minimum of4.0 mg/L, 1 mg/L lower than

the statewide overall use standard.

Illinois EPA’s approach toward determining whether a water body meets the aquatic life

designation is to first use a relevant biotic indicator such as the Index ofBiotic Integrity

for fish (ff1; Karr 1981, Karr et al. 1986, Bertrand et al. 1996) or Macroinvertebrate

Biotic Index (MBI) (IL EPA 1994). Secondarily, the Illinois EPA turns to legally

established narrative and numeric water quality standards, such as the one set for

dissolved oxygen. This approach is valid because it uses accepted biological indicators to

integrate the overall effects ofwater and habitat quality within a stream or lake.

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32

Adherence to water standards such as the one set for dissolved oxygen can then be used

to identify the causes ofimpairment.

Aquatic life use in Illinois streams is evaluated based on a “weight ofevidence” approach

endorsed by USEPA (IL EPA 2002). Ifpossible, ff1 and MBI data are evaluated. These

biotic integrity values are compared to established criteria and then stream reaches are

categorized as being in full, partial, or nonsupport ofthe aquatic life designated use. If

index values are incomplete or available, then water chemistry data are usedto assess

quality. It is under this scenario that the Illinois standard for dissolved oxygen might be

used to determine whether a stream reach is in compliance with this use designation.

Water quality data for streams derive from several sources including the IBS, which

generates ff1 and MB! data and two or three water chemistry samples at intensive survey

basin sites. AWQMN stations also generate water chemistry data to be used in

assessments (about nine samples per year). FRSS stations are located at point sources

and provide an additional two or three water chemistry samples per station. Although

this combination ofbiological and water quality data provide a useful general assessment

ofstream reach integrity, dissolved oxygen concentrations deriving from these sampling

regimes are limited at best and probably do not capture the natural daily and seasonal

fluctuations that occur. Limited point estimates ofdissolved oxygen concentration may

not fully reflect the oxygen dynamics occurring in stream reaches.

In recognition ofthe limitations ofsingle water chemistry estimates, Illinois EPA uses

criteria based on the age and abundance ofwater quality samples (IL EPA 2002). For

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33

example, a specific water quality criterion can be used to assess aquatic life use if ten or

more samples less than

5

years old are available. Under these conditions, a system would

be impaired for aquatic life use if dissolved oxygen concentrations declined below the

state standard in greater than 10 of samples. Ifgreater than 25 ofsamples are below

the standard, then the reach is considered severely impaired. This approachbetter

integrates potential fluctuations in dissolved oxygen concentration. However, if

minimum dissolved oxygen criteria used by the state are too conservative, minimawithin

natural fluctuations in oxygen concentration may be interpreted-as- impairnent. Because

the Illinois EPA designation process requires that biologists account for other site-

specific factors such as habitat quality and biotic integrity indicators, the likelihood that a

system would be considered impaired solely as a function oflow dissolyed oxygen

concentration is low.

A similar approach is used for the assessment ofaquatic life use in inland lakes in Illinois

(IL EPA 2002). Chemical, physical, and biological data derive from many sources, and

include as many as 2,000 lakes. Probably the most intensive survey program is the

ALMP, which includes about 50 lakes per year. Lakes are monitored five times -per year,

and dissolved oxygen profiles are included in the sampling protocol. Other data derive

from the ILCP and VLMP. The Illinois EPA’s Aquatic Life Use Impairment Index (ALl)

is the primary indicator used for assessing the level ofsupport ofaquatic life use. The

ALl integrates the mean trophic state index (TSI; Carlson 1977), macrophyte coverage,

and concentration ofnonvolatile suspended solids. ALl values increase with increasing

impairment (e.g., high productivity, high vegetation coverage, high suspended solids).

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34

These AL! values are used to score each lake for overall use support. The overall use

scores are then averaged for a lake when more than one measurement is available. Low

dissolved oxygen concentration is considered as a potential cause ofimpairment (i.e.,

when the mean overall use score is high) if(1) concentrations below the minimum

standard

(5

mg/L at one foot below the surface) occur at least once during a sampling

year or (2) the lake mean is consistently below this minimum. A fish kill corresponding

with low oxygen would also qualify for designation oflow oxygen as a potential cause of

use impairment.

The 2002 IEPA Water Quality (305b) report summarized aquatic life use support for

Illinois streams and lakes through September 2000. Of the 15,491 miles ofstreams that

were assessed,

5,450

miles were categorized as being in partial or no support ofthe use

designation. For 2,962 miles of the impaired stream reaches, low dissolved oxygen due

to organic enrichment was implicated as a potential cause ofimpairment. Of 148,134

acres oflakes (N=352 lakes), 3,948 acres (N=2 lakes) were categorized as failing to

support overall use. In addition, 121,648 acres (N=203 lakes) were in partial support.

Organic enrichment leading to low dissolved oxygen was implicated as a cause of

impairment for 80,135 acres (N59 lakes). Clearly, low dissolved oxygen

concentrations, as they are now defined by the state standard, are an important

contributor to impairment ofdesignated use in Illinois surface waters.

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35

Assessment ofIL water quality standard and recommendations

Based on our review ofthe literature and current standards, the current IL EPA methods

for assessing health and impairment are adequate, but the Illinois dissolved oxygen

standards are in need offurther refinement. In particular, the focus on biological integrity

for initial assessment of freshwater habitat health is the appropriate, progressive approach

and the state should continue its focus on biotic integrity. However, the dissolved oxygen

standards, based on daily minima, are likely too conservative for freshwater systems in

this region and should be modified to more realistically reflect local conditions. In this

document, we provide state-wide recommendations. However, with increased scientific

information, region- or basin-specific standards likely will more realistically set criteria

based upon expected conditions in oxygen, other water quality parameters, and habitat

characteristics.

Our recommendations are to generally adopt standards of Chapman (1986) for

warmwater systems, with some modifications based on research that has been completed

since this document was produced (see Table 4 for example ofcalculations). Thirty-day

moving averages identified in Chapman (1986) are not included in ourrecommendations

because (1) they are not appropriate for early life history stages in which development

occurs at a much shorter time scale and (2) responses of all life stages to changes in

oxygen concentrations are likely better captured and more biologically relevant during

shorter windows of time (i.e., 1-7 days).

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36

Our recommendations forthe State ofIllinois are seasonal to (1) protect early life stages

(i.e., eggs, embryos, and larvae; typically 30-d post spawning) of spring-spawning fish

species (Table 3) and (2) incorporate the expected fluctuations and reduced maximum

capacity ofdissolved oxygen during summer months whenjuvenile or adult stages are

largely present. Although few supporting data are available, species with offspring

produced during non-spring months (Table 3) likely have adaptations that allow them to

persist under natural oxygen concentrations expected during summer. Thus, our

recommended criteria for non-spring months should be sufficiently protective unless

further research necessitates refinement. Our recommendations are summarized in Table

5.

Spring through Early Summer

• A 1-day minimum of5.0 mg/L during spring through early summer (i.e., March 1

-

through June 30). This recommendation is based on ourre-analysis ofChapman

(1986)’s daily minima

(5

mg/L) for early life stages of fish (Figure 1) and spawning

times summarized in Table 3.

• A 7-day mean of 6.0 mg/L during spring through early summer (i.e., March 1 through

June 30). This mean is defined as the average ofthe daily average values and should

be based, whenever possible, on data collected by semi-continuous data loggers. If

this is not possible, daily averages can be estimated from the daily maximum and

minimum values if daily fluctuations in dissolved oxygen are approximately

sinusoidal. Ifdaily fluctuations are not sinusoidal, then appropriate time-weighted

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37

averages must be used. Regardless ofmethod (data loggers or daily maximum and

minimum), maximum values used to calculate means should not exceed the air

saturation concentrations for prevailing temperature and atmospheric pressure (see

Table 4 for example).

OtherMonths

• A 1-day minimum of 3.5 mg/L during the remainder ofthe year (i.e., July 1 through

February 28 or 29). This recommendation is based on our re-evaluation of Chapman

(l986)’s daily minima (3 mg/L) for adult life stages and fish spawning times

summarized in Table 3. It also is sufficiently higher than the critical minima for

survival found for many common species offish (e.g., see Table 1).

• A 7-day mean minimum of4.0 mg/L during periods during the remainder ofthe year

(i.e., July 1 through February 28 or 29). Mean minimum is defined as the average of

the minimum daily recorded dissolved oxygen concentrations. Seven-day periods can

represent any seven consecutive days and should be based on moving averages when

possible (see Table 4).

Other Considerations

• Manipulatable discharges, defined earlier as those in which dissolved oxygen

concentrations may be manipulated and are generally serially correlated, present a

special case where a seven-day mean minimum can be achieved while frequently

lowering conditions to the daily minimum and likely exposing aquatic life to oxygen

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38

stress (Chapman 1986). As a result, two areas in proximity to manipulatable

discharges should be monitored closely (e.g., continuously). One measurement

should be taken at the zone ofmixing; the other monitoring station should be

downstream, at an area beyond the direct influence of the mixing zone. During the

non-spring months when seven —day mean minima are allowable (July through

February; Table

5),

we recommend that the occurrence ofdaily minima values at the

recommended one-day minimum (3.5 mg/L) should be limited to no more than 3

weeks total per year or that the one-day minimum be increased to 4.0 mg/L for areas

in which manipulatable discharges occur. These guidelines will reduce the likelihood

of exposing aquatic life influenced by manipulatable discharges to oxygen stress.

• In cases where diel fluctuations ofdissolved oxygen are extreme, systems might meet

mean criteria but still violate minima. Unusually large diel fluctuations-are

symptomatic ofeutrophication and in these cases the minima should be the focus of

monitoring and assessment activities.

• Although we recommend the use ofcontinuous monitoring wi-th-data-loggers, the

detection ofthe violation of daily minima values will be more likely using this

method. Thus, the detection ofviolations ofdaily minima using relatively infrequent

spot checks may be indicative of larger problems than those measured with

continuous monitoring. This potential issue should be acknowledged during

monitoring and assessment.

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39

• In streams, we recommend that dissolved oxygen measurements be measured in pool

or run habitats (not riffles) in the water column in or near the thalweg at 67 of

stream depth. Readings in streams should not be taken at the sediment/water

interface, as this is a region where natural oxygen sags are expected. We recognize

that many sensitive taxa reside in the benthos and may be negatively affected by

hypoxia in this zone. Thus, future criteria including expected oxygen concentrations

at the sediment/water interface may be useful. Research that quantifies relationships

between water-column dissolved oxygen concentrations and those at the sediment

boundary would be helpful for determining such standards. Natural inundation of

potentially hypoxic groundwater also must be taken into account when assessing

stream oxygen. In lakes, readings should be taken 1 m below the surface in the

limnetic zone above the deepest point of the lake.

• Lake Michigan represents the only large-scale, native coldwater fisheries system in

Illinois and thus should be considered separately from our recommendations in this

document that are focused on warmwater systems. We recommend that coldwater

and coolwater fisheries associated with Lake Michigan be held to standards more

appropriate for resident fish communities, which have distinctly higher oxygen

requirements (Chapman 1986). The current IL EPA recommended daily minimum of

5

mg/L is adequate for the coldwater and coolwater fishes in Lake Michigan (see

Chapman 1986 review oftolerance ofcoidwater species) unless further research

indicates otherwise.

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40

• Wetlands differ from lakes and streams in that they are often naturally productive

systems with low oxygen. Wetland habitats are protected by numerous laws and

other protective measures, but there is little information regarding water quality

standards for wetlands. Further, wetlands are highly variable and a single,

comprehensive standard may be difficult to achieve. As such, we cannot make

recommendations regarding wetlands except that they should not be held to the

-

standards we recommend for streams and lakes. Future research on water quality and

associated methods and standards in Illinois should include wetlands.

• It should be noted that the criteria we recommend for streams and lakes in Illinois

represent worst case conditions and thus the mimimum values that we recommend, or

values near the mimimum, should not be commonplace in space or time throughout

the state. Systems in which dissolved oxygen concentrations decline frequently to the

-

recommended minima should not be designated as being in full support of aquatic life

use. The frequency by which minima should be allowed to occur should depend on

season. During spring when early life stages are present, weeklyor more frequent

declines to daily 1 -d minima may be sufficient to cause stress to developing eggs,

embryos, and larvae, compromising success ofpopulations that reproduce over

relatively short time periods. Conversely, twice weeklyor more frequent declines to

1-d minima may be tolerated by adults during other months. Given the dearth of

scientific information available, these estimates can only be made based on our

knowledge of the timing ofreproductive events and short-term responses of adults to

hypoxia. Managers ofaquatic systems in Illinois should strive to continuously

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41

improve conditions rather than avoid violations of state minimum standards. As

mentioned earlier, this may be best achieved by primarily monitoring the biological

components ofaquatic systems (e.g., biotic integrity). We stress that focusing on

-

biotic integrity in monitoring and assessment activities should continue as a major

focus for the state ofIllinois. Aquatic communities reflect the overall health of

aquatic ecosystems, and can thus integrate all stressors. Water quality monitoring

(e.g., continuous dissolved oxygen concentrations) and habitat assessment is critical

for identifying the cause ofchanges in biotic integrity. Further research on specific

relationships between biotic integrity, dissolved oxygen, and other water quality and.

habitat factors is needed.

• Research that quantifies relationships between biotic integrity and dissolved oxygen

concentrations in Illinois streams will allow for development ofphysiologically

based, hypoxic indices (e.g., Smale and Rabeni l995b), which may prove very useful

for the assessment and monitoring of surface water habitats in Illinois. Laboratory-

based estimates ofphysiological tolerance oflow dissolved oxygen concentrations

often fail to integrate the host ofenvironmental factors affecting growth, survival, and

reproductive viability. Thus, future research should quantify responses under more

realistic conditions.

Gaps in our knowledge

Dissolved oxygen criteria and other standards for assessing freshwater ecosystem health

and function should continue to evolve as more information on relationships between

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42

ecosystem health and the variety of measured variables is gathered. Hence, all

recommendations made within this document must be considered within the context of

our current knowledge ofthese relationships and may need further modification as more

information becomes available. There are many different knowledge gaps and research

needs in Illinois, as well as at the national level. In particular, we feel that further

research on quantitative relationships between diel oxygen curves, nutrient status, and

primaryproduction will provide very important information for further understanding

freshwater ecosystem health and function and further modifying water quality standards.

In particular, research that directly quantifies these relationships, rather than correlational

analyses will be ofgreat value for establishing realistic water quality standards. Research

in this area should also focus on how diel oxygen curves are related to daily and longer-

term minima and average values, and how biological (primary producer conimunities)

and physical (nutrients, light, flow, substrates) factors interact to influence them. A more

precise understanding ofthese relationships in different types ofsurface water habitats

will greatly enhance our ability to develop more precise and meaningful criteria.

There is also a great need for further research on the use ofbiological data for assessing

freshwater ecosystem health and integrity and establishing water quality standards.

While dissolved oxygen criteria may accurately reflect oxygen stress related to nutrient

and/or organic enrichment, biological monitoring can reflect oxygen status as well as a

wide array ofother potential stressors such as other forms ofpollution (e.g., pesticides,

metals) and physical habitat degradation, and integrate conditions over space and time

(e.g., Steingraeber and Wiener 1995, Rabeni 2000, Griffith et al. 2001). Because ofthis

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43

and the manyother benefits ofbiological monitoring (e.g., see Loeb and Spacie 1993,

Barbour et al. 1999, and Barbour et al. 2000 for review ofthe manybenefits ofbiological

monitoring), and the national focus on biomonitoring, we ultimately recommend that

Illinois move further towards the use ofbiological data for assessing freshwater habitat

health and function and setting water quality criteria in Illinois. In order for this to

happen, region and habitat specific tolerance values, metrics, and multimetric indices that

best reflect health and function will need to be developed, tested, and calibrated

throughout the state. Along with this, research on region and habitat specific reference

conditions will be needed. As with research on dissolved oxygen dynamics, research that

moves away from only correlational analyses and focuses more on isolating and directly

testing variables will be ofmost value.

---

44

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54

e

Table 1. Critical minimum dissolved oxygen concentrations for 35 species ofcommon

headwater stream fishes determined from laboratory experiments (Smale and Rabeni

1995b).

Critical minimum dissolved oxygen

concentration (mg/L)

Species

Rank

Mean

95 CI

Brook silversides

1

1.59

1.70-1.48

Rosyface shiner

2

1.49

1.67-1.30

Ozark minnow

3

1.45

1.57-1.33

Bleeding shiner

4

1.35

1.47-1.23

Smallmouthbass

5

1.19

1.29-1.08

Redfin shiner

6

1.17

1.25-1.08

Black bullhead

7

1.13

1.27-1.00

Rainbow darter

8

1.10

1.21-0.99

Hornyhead chub

9

1.06

1.20-0.92

Bluntnose minnow

.

10

1.04

1.11-0.97

Suckermouth minnow

11

1.04

1.09-0.98

Striped shiner

12

1.03

1.10-0.95

Bigmouth shiner

13

1.02

1.07-0.97

Fantail darter

14

0.98

1.06-0.91

White sucker

15

0.98

1.16-0.79

Common shiner

16

0.97

1.06-0.89

Central stoneroller

17

0.95

1.04-0.86

Sand shiner

18

0.93

1.11-0.75

Plains topminnow

19

0.92

1.02-0.82

Red shiner

20

0.91

0.99-0.82

Blackspotted topminnow

21

0.88

1.25-0.5 1

Blackstripe topmmnnow

22

0.88

0.90-0.85

Orangethroat darter

23

0.86

-

0.98-0.73

Creek chub

24

0.84

0.90-0.79

Southern redbelly dace

25

0.74

0.80-0.69

Fathead minnow

26

0.73

0.79-0.67

Johnny darter

27

0.70

0.76-0.64

Golden shiner

28

0.70

0.75-0.65

Largemouth bass

29

0.70

0.77-0.63

Longear sunfish

30

0.68

0.74-0.63

Bluegill

31

0.66

0.74-0.57

Green sunfish

32

0.63

0.68-0.57

Orangespotted sunfish

33

0.62

0.68-0.56

Slender madtom

34

0.60

0.67-0.54

Yellow bullhead

35

0.49

--

0.52-0.46

---

55

Table 2. USEPA water quality criteria for ambient water column dissolved

oxygen concentration from Chapman (1986). Early life stages include all

embryonic and larval stages and juveniles to 30 days post-hatching.

Period/Value

Early life stages

Other stages

3Odaymean

NA

5.5

7daymean

6.0

NA

7 day mean minimum

NA

4.0

1 day minimum

5.0

3.0

---

56

Table 3. Summary of spawning temperatures or times for common warmwater fish taxa

(by genus or species) in Illinois. Summaries derive from Pflieger (1997) and B.M. Burr,

personal communication, Department ofZoology, Southern Illinois University,

Carbondale.

Common name

Lampreys

Paddlefish

Goldeye and Mooneye

Mudminnow

Pikes

Creek chub

1-lornyhead chub

Stonerollers

Redhorse

l-Iogsucker

Sucker

Spotted sucker

Chubsucker

Pirate

perch

Sculpin

Temperate bass

Rock bass

Crappie

Walleye/Sauger

Yellow perch

Logperch

Darters

Freshwater drum

Sturgeons

Gar

Skipjack herring

Gizzard/threadfin shad

Common carp

Golden shiner

Dace

Silverjaw minnow

Southern redbelly dace

Minnows

Minnows

Buffalo

Carpsuckers

Catfish

Madtoms

Black bass

Other

Percina

Ic/itJzyonzyzon

and

Lampetra

Polyodon spathula

1-Jiodon

Umbra linii

Esox

Semotilus atromaculatus

Nocomis biguuaius

Camposiotna

Moxosioma

Hypenielium nigricans

Catostomous

Minytrema melanops

Erinzyzon

Aphredoderus sayanus

Coitus

Morone

Ambloplites rupesiris

Pomoxis

Sander

Percafiavescens

Percina caprodes

Etheostoma

Aplodinotus grunniens

Acipenser

and

Scapliyrhynchus

Lepisosteus

Alosa clzrysochloris

Dorosoina

Cyprinus carpio

Nolernigonus crysoleucas

R/zinic/zt/zys

Ericymbabuccata

Phoxinus eryzhrogaster

Hybognathus

Pimephales

ictiobus

Carpiodes

ictalurus

Noturus

Micropterus

Percina

March through May

April through May

March through April

April

March through April

April through May

April through May

15°C

April through May

April through May

March through

May

April through May

April through May

May

March through

April

April through May

April through May

April through May

April

April through May

April

March through May

April through May

April through June

April through June

April through June

April through June

March through June

April through June

April through June

May through June

May through June

May through June

May through June

April through June

April through June

May through June

May through June

May through June

Varies

-

April through June

Spring

Spring

Spring

Spring

Spring

Spring

Spring

Spring

Spring

Spring

Spring

Spring

Spring

Spring

Spring

Spring

Spring

Spring

Spring

Spring

Spring

Spring

Spring

Spring-Early Summer

Spring-Early Summer

Spring-Early Summer

Spring-Early Summer

Spring-Early Summer

Spring-Early Summer

Spring-Early Summer

Spring-Early Summer

Spring-Early Summer

Spring-Early Summer

Spring-Early Summer

Spring-Early Summer

Spring-Early Summer

Spring-Early Summer

Spring-Early Summer

Spring-Early Summer

Spring-Early Summer

Months or Temperatures of

Genus/Species

Spawning

Season of Spawning

---

57

V

Table 3 continued.

Trout perch

Percopsis omiscomaycus

March through August

Spring-Summer

Killifish

Fundulus

May through August

Spring-Summer

Mosquitofish

Gambusia affinis

May through August

Spring-Summer

Brook silverside

Labidesthes sicculus

May through August

Spring-Summer

Sunfish

Lepomis

May through August

Spring-Summer

Chubs

Hybopsis

Summer

Summer

Shiners

Notropis

May through July

Summer

Flathead catfish

Pylodiclusdivans

June through July

Summer

Darters

Ain,nocrypta

Unknown

Unknown

---

58

Table 4. Example calculations for 1-d minimum, 7-d mean, and 7-d mean minimum

dissolved oxygen concentrations (mgIL; ~daptedfrom Chapman 1986). Ifonly a

maximum and minimum daily temperature is available, a 7-day mean is calculated by

averaging the daily means (maximum plus minimum divided by two) and then averaging

across seven days (see below). It would be more desirable to generate a time-weighted

daily average ofmultiple (or continuous) daily temperatures, including the maximum and

minimum.

-

Day

Daily Max

Daily Mm

Daily Mean

1

9.0

7.0

8.0

2

10.0

7.0

•

8.5

3

11.0

8.0

9.5

4

12.0*

8.0

95*

5

10.0

8.0

9.0

6

11.0

9.0

10.0

7

12.0*

-

10.5*

1 day minimum

7.0

.

7 day mean mm.

8.1

7daymean

9.3

*Maximum value exceeds air saturation concentration of 11 mg/L.

---

59

Table

5.

Recommended water quality criteria for ambient water column dissolved

oxygen concentration in Illinois surface waters (excluding the Great Lakes, Great Lake

coolwater tributaries, and wetlands).

Period/Value

Spring (March 1-June 30)

Non Spring (July 1-

February 28 or 29)

1-d minimum

5.0

3.5

7-dmean

6.0

-

7-d mean minimum

-

4.0

---

0

2

4

6

8

10

DO

(mg/L)

60

‘

Intolerant~

L~

Tolerant!1

Figure 1. Percent survival (relative to controls) of “tolerant” (i.e., largemouth bass, black

crappie, white sucker, white bass) and “intolerant” (i.e., northern pike, channel catfish,

walleye, and smailmouth bass) fish larvae and embryos (adapted from Chapman 1986).

r

140

120

-i

100

80

60

CI,

w

U

I...

a)

a-

U

20

0

---

.1

61

,~3i

•0

1~2.5-j

0

.Q

-

0

0

-

0

0

00

0

o0

0

0

-~-~0

0

2

4

6

8.

101

Dissolved Oxygen Concentration

Figure 2. Effect of vertical distribution in dissolved oxygen on the occurrence of threadfin

shad and hybrid striped bass in Lake of Egypt

,

Illinois during summer through fall 2003.

Fish avoided the deep, hypolimnetic water of the lake when dissolved oxygen concentrations