BEFORE THE ILLINOIS POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD

REcE~vED

IN THE MATTER OF:

)

CLERKS OFFICE

PROPOSED AMENDMENTS TO

)

R 04-25

~

2004

DISSOLVED OXYGEN STANDARD

)

STATE OF ILL ~O~S

35 Iii. Adm. Code 302.206

)

PoUut~onControl Bowc~

NOTICE OF FILING•

TO: See Attached Service List

PLEASE TAKE NOTICE that I have today filed with the Office ofthe Clerk ofthe

Pollution Control Board the following documents:

WRITTEN TESTIMONY

OF DR.

JAMES E. GARVEY

FISHERIES AND

ILLINOIS

AQUACULTURE CENTER

SOUTHERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY, CARBONDALE,

IAWA Exhibit List

a copy ofwhich is served upon you.

ILLINOIS ASSOCIATION OF WASTEWATER

AGENCIES,

By:

~

~

‘

One ofIts Attorneys

Dated: June 15, 2004

Sheila H. Deely

Roy M. Harsch

GARDNER CARTON

&

DOUGLAS LLP

191 Wacker Drive

—

Suite 3700

Chicago, Illinois 60606

(312) 569-1000

THIS FILING PRINTED ON RECYCLED PAPER

---

CERTIFICATE OF SERVICE

The undersigned certifies that a copy ofthe foregoing:

WRITTEN TESTIMONY OF DR. JAMES E. GARVEY

FISHERIES

AND

ILLINOIS AQUACULTURE CENTER

SOUTHERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY, CARBONDALE,

IAWA Exhibit List

was filed by hand delivery with the Clerk ofthe Illinois Pollution Control Board and served upon

the.parties to whom said Notice is directed by first class mail, postage prepaid, by depositing in

the U.S. Mail at 191 Wacker Drive, Chicago, IL on Tuesday, June

15,

2004.

CHO2/ 22319687.1

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Service List

R2004-025

Fred L. Hubbard

Alex Messina

415 North Gilbert Street

Illinois Environmental Regulatory Group

Danville, IL 61834-0012

3150 Roland Avenue

Springfield, IL 62703

Bernard Sawyer

Metropolitan Water Reclamation District

6001 W. Pershing Rd.

Cicero, IL 60650-4112

Charles W. Wesselhofl

Ross & Hardies

150 North Michigan Avenue

Suite 2500

Chicago, IL 6060

1-7567

Claire A. Maiming

Posegate & Denes, P.C.

111 N. Sixth Street

Springfield, IL 62705

Connie L. Tonsor

JEPA

1021 North Grand Avenue

P.O. Box 19276

Springfield, IL 62794-9276

Deborah J. Williams

IEPA

1021 North Grand Avenue

P.O. Box 19276

Springfield, IL 62794-9276

DennisL. Duffield

City ofJoliet, Department ofPublic Works and

Utilities

921 E. Washington Street

Joliet, IL 60431

Dorothy M. Gunn

Illinois Pollution Control Boark

100 W. Randolph St.

Suite 11-500

Chicago, IL 60601

Erika K. Powers

Barnes & Thornburg

1 N. Wacker

Suite 4400

Chicago, IL 60606

Frederick D. Keady

Vermilion Coal

1979 Johns Drive

Glenview, IL 60025

James L. Daugherty

Thorn Creek Basin SanitaryDistrict

700 West End Avenue

Chicago Heights, IL 60411

James T. Harrington

Ross & Hardies

150 North Michigan Avenue

Suite 2500

Chicago, IL 60601-7567

Joel J. Sternstein

Office ofthe Attorney General

188 West Randolph

20th Floor

Chicago, IL 60601

---

Service List

R2004-025

John Donahue

City ofGeneva

22 South First Street

Geneva, IL 60134-2203

Jonathan Furr

Illinois Department ofNatural Resources

One Natural Resources Way

Springfield, IL 62702-1271

Ketherine D. Hodge

Hodge Dwyer Zeman

3150 Roland Avenue

P.O. Box 5776

Springfield, IL 62705-5776

Larry Cox

Downers Grove Sanitary District

2710 Curtiss Street

Downers Grove, IL 60515

Lisa Frede

Chemical Industry Council ofIllinois

2250 B. Devon Avenue

Suite 239

Des Plaines, IL 60018-4509

Margaret Hedinger

2601 South Fifth Street

Springfield, IL 62703

.

.

Matthew J. Dunn

Office ofthe Attorney General

188 West Randolph

20th Floor

Chicago, IL 60601

Michael G. Rosenberg, Esq.

Metropolitan Water Reclamation District

100 East Erie Street

Chicago, IL 60611

Mike Callahan

Bloomington Normal Water Reclamation

District

P0 Box 3307

Bloomington, IL 6 1702-3307

Richard Lanyon

Metropolitan Water Reclamation District

100 East Erie Street

Chicago, IL 60611

Richard McGill

Illinois Pollution Control Board

100 W. Randolph St.

Suite 11-500

Chicago, IL 60601

Sanjay K. Sofat

IEPA

1021 North Grand Avenue East

P.O. Box .19276

Springfield, IL 62794-9276

Stephanie. N. Diers

IEPA

1021 North Grand Avenue East

P.O. Box 19276

Springfield, IL 62794-9276

Sue Schultz

Illinois American Water Company

300 North Water Works Drive

P.O. Box 24040

Belleville, IL 62223-9040

---

Service List

R2004-025

Susan M. Franzetti

10 South LaSalle Street

.

Suite 3600

Chicago, IL 60603

Tom Muth

Fox Metro Water Reclamation District

682 State Route 31

Oswego, IL 60543

Vicky McKinley

Evanston Environment Board

23 Grey Avenue

Evanston, IL 60202

,

W.C. Blanton

Blackwell Sanders Peper Martin LLP

2300 Main Street

Suite 1000

Kansas City, MO 64108

CHO2/ 22319597.1

---

CE~VED

CLERK’S OFFICE

BEFORE THE ILLINOIS POLLUTION CONTROL

BOARD

j~j~~

r

2004

IN THE MATTER OF:

))

PQIj~t~onSTATE OFControlILLiNOISboard

PROPOSED AMENDMENTS TO

)

R 04-25

DISSOLVED OXYGEN STANDARD

)

35 Iii. Adm. Code 302.206

)

WRITTEN TESTIMONY OF DR. JAMES E. GARVEY

FISHERIES AND ILLINOIS AQUACULTURE CENTER

SOUTHERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY, CARBONDALE, ILLINOIS

I am Dr. James Garvey, Assistant Professor in the Fisheries and Illinois

Aquaculture Center at Southern Illinois University in Carbondale. I have been engaged

by the Illinois Association of Wastewater Agencies (IAWA), along with my colleague,

Dr. Matt Whiles, to scientifically evaluate the current State ofIllinois dissolved oxygen

standard and to provide recommendations about how the Illinois standard might be

revised and updated, if warranted by our scientific evaluation.

Both Dr. Whiles and I are broadly trained in aquatic ecology. My specialty is the

ecology offishes, with much ofmy research focusing on how environmental conditions

affect fish physiology, abundance, and distribution. My Short Curriculum Vita has been

submitted as IAWA’s Exhibit

5.

Dr. Whiles, a professor in the Department ofZoology,

is an expert on the ecology ofaquatic invertebrates and their role in streams and lakes.

His Resume has been submitted as IAWA’s Exhibit 6. Our combined experience

qualified us to provide an objective assessment ofthe current state ofknowledge about

how dissolved oxygen affects aquatic organisms and to evaluate the current statewide,

one-day minimum standard of

5

mgIL. We did not intensively evaluate the application of

the state standards to Lake Michigan, and JAWA has not proposed to revise that standard.

---

Dr. Whiles and Ibegan our assessment by reviewing published, typically peer-reviewed

research on how dissolved oxygen affects aquatic organisms and how dissolved oxygen

varies in lakes and streams. We also reviewed the National Ambient Water Quality

Criteria Document for Dissolved Oxygen (NCD) published by the United States

Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) in 1986, and submitted as IAWA’s Exhibit

In the final report, Dr. Whiles and I emphasize that using biological- and habitat-

2. We evaluated the current monitoring ofwater quality in Illinois and conferred with

quality criteria to evaluate suitability for aquatic life use in the surface waters ofIllinois

Illinois EPA concerning the scientific basis for the current Illinois dissolved oxygen

is ofparamount importance and should be continued to be emphasized in monitoring

standard. We then prepared a written report of our findings, which is submitted as IAWA

programs. It is unlikely that any one water quality parameter such as dissolved oxygen

Exhibit 1.

concentration will capture the capacity ofa stream or lake to support aquatic life.

Although ourrecommended dissolved oxygen standards are sufficiently protective of

aquatic life in Illinois, we recommend that regulators strive to maintain dissolved oxygen

concentrations well above these minima when possible. We agree with the concerns

voiced by some colleagues that the state should move toward a region-specific set of

water-quality criteria and aquatic life goals, although comprehensive regional data to

guide these decisions for Illinois are not yet available.

As the NCD suggests, dissolved oxygen concentrations in lakes and streams

fluctuate diurnally. During warm, summer months, dissolved oxygen concentrations

decline due to water’s reduced capacity to hold oxygen at elevated temperatures and the

high respiratory demand ofaquatic communities. A single dissolved oxygen standard

such as that in Illinois does not realistically capture these diurnal and seasonal

fluctuations. Although comprehensive surface water data are lacking forthe state, many

pristine aquatic systems largely unaffected by agricuitural~run-offor municipal

2

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discharges most likely experience occasional, non-lethal declines in dissolved oxygen

below the state’s current minimum of

5

mgIL.

Our recommendations in the report include seasonally appropriate means and

minima that more realistically account for natural fluctuations in dissolved oxygen

concentrations, while remaining sufficiently protective ofaquatic life. These

recommendations are based largely on potential responses of all life stages ofnative

Illinois fishes that fall in the NCD’s non-salmonid category. As with the NCD, we define

these as typically warm-water fishes, although much variation in temperature and oxygen

tolerance occurs among taxa in this group.

Research summarized in the 1986 NCD was used to set our recommended

dissolved oxygen standards above those concentrations expected to slightly impair

production offishes. Research conducted since publication ofthe report generally

confirms that the seasonal standards we recommend are sufficiently protective offishes

and other aquatic organisms in Illinois surface waters. During spring through early

summer, most early life stages offishes and other aquatic organisms are produced. These

early reproducing organisms are typically the most susceptible to low dissolved oxygen

concentrations and thus require the most stringent protection. Our reanalysis ofdata

within the NCD and our review ofthe literature led to the development ofa standard

proposed to be applicable during March 1 through June 30, which specifically protects

these early life stages and includes both a one-day minimum identical to the current

Illinois standard of

5

mg/L and a seven-day mean of6 mg!L. During warmer, productive

months throughout the remainder ofthe year when species with sensitive early life stages

have largely completed reproduction, we recommend a one-day minimum of3.5 mg/L

3

---

and a seven-day mean minimum of4 mgIL, which is a more realistic general expectation

for Illinois surface waters than the current minimum standard of

5

mg/L.

Our recommended standards are based on our current understanding ofthe short-

and long-term responses ofaquatic organisms to low dissolved oxygen. In most natural

aquatic systems, habitat use by juvenile and adult fish is largely unaffected by dissolved

oxygen until concentrations decline below 3 mg/L. Acute lethal effects on post-larval,

warm-water fishes do not occur until concentrations decline below 2 mg/L. As wenote

in the report, chronic effects oflong-term exposure to low dissolved oxygen

concentrations are not well understood. See IAWA Ex. 1 at 18. Some impairment of

growth likely occurs in many warm-water species when dissolved oxygen concentrations

are chronically below 4 mgIL, which none ofour recommended standards allow.

Initially, Dr. Whiles and I summarized our findings and outlined our

recommendations in a draft report that was distributed to IAWA and the Illinois

Department ofNatural Resources (IDNR). Dr. Whiles also presented our findings to a

special meeting ofIAWA this spring, where representatives from Illinois EPA (ILEPA)

and Prairie Rivers Network were present. During this time, I also distributed the draft

report to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 3, Carterville Fisheries Resource

Office; the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 3, Ecological Services Sub-Office; the

IDNR, Office ofResource Conservation; the IDNR, Office ofRealty and Environmental

Planning, Division ofNatural Resource Review and Coordination; the Illinois Natural

History Survey/U.S. Geological Service, Long-Term Resource Monitoring Program,

Great Rivers Field Station; and the Illinois Chapter ofthe American Fisheries Society

(ILAFS). On June 10, 2004, I met with the extended Executive Committee ofthe ILAFS

4

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to discuss the report. Questions voiced by many ofthe participants ofthe IAWA meeting

held this spring were answered in the final draft ofthe report. After circulating the draft,

I received informal comments from the IDNR Office ofResource Conservation, which

also were addressed in the final draft. The IDNR Office ofRealty and Planning

informally found the science to support the recommended changes. During my recent

meeting with the Executive Committee ofthe ILAFS, I answered questions about the

report and the proposed changes to the current Illinois standards. I agreed with the

primary conclusion ofthe group that a set ofregional standards are needed for Illinois.

The other groups have provided neither informal nor formal feedback to me to date.

A letter dated 28 May 2004 written by Ms. Beth Wentzel ofPrairie Rivers

Network to the Division ofWater Pollution ContrOl, ILEPA raised several specific

concerns about our report. Ms. Wentzel noted that ourreport was not entirely consistent

with the NCD. Although the NCD recommends adopting the most conservative

standards for all early life stages offish through thirty-days post hatching whenever these

life stages occur, our report only recommends adopting these conservative standards

through June. Of the forty-eight fish taxa in Illinois that we surveyed, forty likely

complete the reproductive portion oftheir life cycle by the end of June or earlier

throughout Illinois. Given that fluctuating oxygen concentrations occur naturally in

Midwestern streams and lakes during summer, the remainder of species that continue to

reproduce during these months must have adaptations that allow them to persist when

ambient oxygen concentrations occasionally approach our recommended summer

minimum. Hence, our report indeed departs from the NCD in that it attempts to generate

5

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more realistic expectations for dissolved oxygen concentrations and the responses of

native aquatic life in Illinois.

Another criticism voiced by Ms. Wentzel was that we failed to address the

responses ofcool-water species such as smailmouth bass in our recommended criteria.

This is untrue. These species were generally grouped under our warm-water

categorization, because temperature requirements ofnon-salmonid fishes are not well-

delineated. Rather, species-specific temperature needs vary widely along a gradient from

cool to warm water among fish in the Midwest. Although cold-water salmonids can be

categorized by their high oxygen and low temperature requirements, I know ofno

specific research that identifies Midwestern cool-water fishes as having substantially

different oxygen requirements during non-reproductive periods than warm-water

counterparts. The main difference between species with cool- and warm- water

requirements appears to be their temperature-dependent growth optima and lethal

maximum temperatures, which is a separate issue regarding the interaction between

habitat quality and temperature. Interestingly, although smallmouth bass is specifically

listed in the NCD as a sensitive, cool-water fish, it has similar temperature requirements

as many conventional warm-water fishes. Further, smallmouth bass adults have a

minimum lethal dissolved oxygen limit of 1.2 mg!L (see Table I, IAWA Ex. 1), which is

well below our recommended Illinois minimum standard.

Ms. Wentzel noted that we omitted a thirty-day mean standard from our

recommendations, although such a long-term moving average is recommended in the

NCD. In our view, fishes and other aquatic organisms will respond at a much shorter

time scale to declining oxygen than thirty days, requiring a more frequently updated

6

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moving average of seven days. A thirty-day mean may erroneously miss periods of

chronically low dissolved oxygen if high concentrations occur during the remainder of

the thirty-day monitoring period.

Another argument made against our report’s validity is that it focuses primarily on

fish. Fish were selected as the regulatory focus because they were the model in the NCD

and, as it was in 1986, most research on dissolved oxygen is available for this group.

Fish are also ofrecreational and economic importance. Although the data for other taxa

are indeed quite limited, we did address the influence ofdissolved oxygen on other

organisms, specifically mussels and aquatic insects, and have found a pattern that appears

to be consistent with that for fish. As we outline in the report, species that have high

oxygen requirements tend to inhabit areas ofconsistently high and environmentally

predictable dissolved oxygen concentrations. In a stream, this would be a riffle habitat in

which high gaseous exchange occurs between the water and the atmosphere. In our

report, we recommend quantifying oxygen in areas and during times when dissolved

oxygen concentrations are expected to be lowest such as a stream pool before dawn.

These locations should be more susceptible to declining oxygen than areas in which high

exchange elevates oxygen concentrations and typically harbors the most sensitive species

such as darters and mayflies.

We take issue with Ms. Wentzel’s supposition that our recommendations would

render Illinois’s dissolved oxygen standards the weakest in the nation. I have assessed

the standards for ourpeer State ofOhio. From what I understand, Ohio has various

aquatic use designations that are similar to but more specific than those recommended for

Illinois. Each ofthese specific designations has a different daily minimum and one-day

7

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average dissolved oxygen concentration. Probably the most common designation for

surface waters in Ohio is “warm water” which includes a daily minimum of4 mgIL and a

one-day average of

5

mgIL, which appears to applyto the entire year. Clearly, Ohio’s

general standard is less conservative than our recommended statewide standard during

spring, because its minimum of4 mgIL is 1 mg/L less than our proposed minimum

standard. And Ohio’s minimum is not significantly different than ourproposed minimum

standard of3.5 mg/L during the remainder ofthe year. Ohio’s seasonal salmonid and

coldwater designations are analogous to the Lake Michigan standards, which we do not

recommend modifying.

In my assessment, the largest difference between current standards within Ohio

and Illinois is that Ohio has developed more regional-specific criteria to protect waters

that they deem important. Ohio’s “exceptional warm water” criteria are very similar to

those that Illinois currently has adopted for the entire state, where Ohio’s daily minimum

is

5

mg!L and its one-day average is 6 mg/L. Given that all the surface waters in Illinois

would certainlynot be categorized as “exceptional”, it is clear that the current general

aquatic use Illinois dissolved oxygen standard is too strict. Our recommended standards

do provide similar protection as Ohio’s “exceptional” waters during the critical peak

reproductive times ofthe year.

During my conversations with other scientists, resource managers, and water

regulators, I have received many comments about how the recommended standards are

based on sound science and needed in the state. I recognize and somewhat understand

the perception by some individuals that our recommendations would weaken the Illinois

standards. However, the weight of information available for aquatic organisms suggests

8

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that the proposed standards set more realistic expectations for surface waters in Illinois

and will not degrade the biological integrity ofthese systems. I agree that more research

is needed in many areas and hope that the proposed standard changes will be viewed as

one step in a dynamic, continuing process. It is my view that the state should move

toward developing region-specific biotic integrity, habitat quality, and water quality

criteria, as credible long-term data sets become available.

CHO2/ 22318249.2

9

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CLERKS OFFICE

JUN 15 2004

BEFORE THE ILLINOIS POLLUTION CONTROL BOARBTATE

OF ILLINOIS

Pollution Control Board

IN THE MATTER OF:

)

)

PROPOSED AMENDMENTS TO

)

R 04-25

DISSOLVED OXYGEN STANDARD

)

35 Iii. Adm. Code 302.206

)

WRITTEN TESTIMONY OF J. MICHAEL CALLAHAN

My name is John M. Callahan. I am the Executive Director ofthe Bloomington and

Normal Water Reclamation District (BNWRD) ofMcLean County, Illinois. I have been in the

employment ofthe BNWRD for thirty one years during which time I have held positions of

increasing responsibility from that ofChemist to my current position ofExecutive Director. I

have received a B.S. Degree from Illinois State University with majors in Biological Sciences

and Environmental Health. I have also received an M.A. Degree from the University ofMissouri

(Columbia) in Ecology with an emphasis on nutrient cycling. I pursued Doctoral Studies in

Biological Sciences at Illinois State University, again with an emphasis on nutrient cycling. I

hold an Illinois Environmental Protection Agency Class I Wastewater Treatment Plant Operator

License. I have been a member ofthe Phi Sigma National Biological Honor Society for thirty

years and a member ofthe Sigma Xi Scientific Research Society for twenty three years. I have

been actively involved in professional organizations representing various aspects ofthe

wastewatertreatment industry and have held positions ofleadership in such organizations. These

organizations include the Illinois Association ofWastewaterAgencies, the Illinois Water

Pollution Control Operators Association and the Central States Water Environment Association.

I have been a member ofthe Water Environment Federation for more than twenty five years.

During my career I have served in several stakeholder study groups organized by the Illinois

---

Environmental Protection Agency to assist in the formulation ofstandards and policies

concerning both Illinois water quality and various issues regarding wastewater treatment within

the State. I have published and/or presented numerous papers on various aspects ofwastewater

treatment throughout my career.

It has been my privilege to previously appear before the Illinois Pollution Control Board

to offer input on key issues ofwidespread importance to our state. I thank the Illinois Pollution

Control Board for the opportunity to appear again today to discuss the need for a re-evaluation of

the Illinois dissolved oxygen water quality standard. I am offering testimony on behalfofthe

Illinois Association ofWastewater Agencies (IAWA) and in support ofMr. Dennis Streicher

who is directing this IAWA initiative. The need for a revised Illinois dissolved oxygen standard

has existed for some time. However, two relatively new initiatives in water quality improvement

within the State have mandated that the issue ofrevising the dissolved oxygen standard be

undertaken at this time. These mandates are in response to the need to develop scientifically

derived nutrient standards and to more precisely direct the adoption oftotal maximum daily load

allocations to Illinois waters listed as not attaining designated use support.

Since its inception, approximately four years ago, I have been a member ofthe IEPA

Nutrient Science Advisory Workgroup. This workgroup was assembled by IEPA to develop a

strategy for scientifically deriving water quality standards fornitrogen and phosphorus.

Historically the Workgroup was chaired by Mr. Robert Mosher of IEPA. Recently, Mr. Paul

Terrio ofthe U.S Geological Survey has replaced Mr. Mosher as Workgroup Chair. The water

quality degradation ascribed to phosphorus and nitrogen is a phenomenon called eutrophication.

2

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condition which develops when the naturally limiting nutrient ofan ecosystem is increased to the

extent that the overall balance ofecosystem dynamics is upset. The limiting nutrient of most

freshwater ecosystems is phosphorus. Degrading concentrations ofphosphorus effectively “over

fertilize” the fresh water aquatic system and result in enhanced algal growth. Such algae are

aerobic organisms. During daylight hours algae photosynthesize. A by product of

photosynthesis is oxygen. As a result ofthis photosynthesis, during early stages in the

development of eutrophication, daytime dissolved oxygen levels can be maintained such that

little negative effect is realized in an aquatic system. However, during the night, when no

sunlight is present to power photosynthesis, the increased algae population must continue cellular

respiration as must the remaining aerobic biota ofa freshwater ecosystem. Ultimately, the total

oxygen demand required by these respiring organisms exceeds the ambient night time re-aeration

capability ofa water body. Consequently, oxygen sensitive species are put at stress and

population levels ofsuch organisms may significantly diminish. A self-perpetuating downward

spiral of aquatic organism diversity can thus easily develop as eutrophic conditions continue to

persist.

The IEPA Nutrient Science Advisory Workgroup immediately recognized the

determination ofthe concentration ofphosphorus at which the eutrophication cycle begins to

cause problematic dissolved oxygen depletion to be one ofthe first essential steps in developing

an effective and scientifically derived phosphorus standard. Regrettably, it was also recognized

that this critical concentration ofdissolved oxygen was not known. However, many

professionals throughout Illinois agreed that the current Illinois dissolved oxygen water quality

3

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standard does not represent the dissolved oxygen concentration which is critical to preventing the

onset of eutrophication. In fact, there exists general agreement among professionals that the

ambient dissolved oxygen concentrations ofthe waters ofIllinois frequently naturally fall

beneath the existing dissolved oxygen water quality standard. Mr. Mosher, as Chair ofthe

workgroup, was one ofthe individuals that initially suggested a re-evaluation ofthe Illinois

dissolved oxygen water quality standard was a timely consideration.

Although there existed widespread agreement several years ago within the Workgroup

that a reassessment ofour state’s dissolved oxygen water quality standard was warranted, IEPA

indicated the Agency did not have the resources or manpower to undertake such an effort at that

time. Realizing this need and the lack of available IEPA resources, I asked Mr. Mosher if EPA

would be receptive to and supportive of a third party investigation into the issue ofthe dissolved

oxygen standard issue. Such action was not unprecedented. The EPA had supported the IAWA

in a previous issue brought before the Illinois Pollution Control Board involving the ammonia

nitrogenwater quality standard. I was advised that EPA would support such an undertaking, but

definitely wanted input into the design ofthe research investigation. Ithen approached the

IAWA membership asking if sufficient interest existed for IAWA to fund a third party analysis of

both the existing Illinois dissolved oxygen standard as well as an investigation that would

provide a recommendation for an appropriate dissolved oxygen standard for Illinois. The JAWA

membership readily agreed to fund such work and directed me to investigate both the methods by

which such a research study could be undertaken as well as the willingness ofqualified

professionals within Illinois to undertake the study.

4

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I initially contacted Dr. Mat Whiles ofthe Southern Illinois University Fisheries Research

Laboratory to both inquire ofhis possible interest in undertaking such work as well as his

recommendation ofany other qualified individuals ofwhich he was aware that might be

interested in the research. Dr. Whiles indicated that he was quite interested in the project and

that he thought a colleague ofhis, Dr. James Garvey, would be very interested in assisting him

with the work. I reported back to the IAWA membership that Dr. Whiles and Dr. Garvey had

expressed considerable interest in undertaking the project. The JAWA membership then

unanimously voted to retain the services ofthe two gentlemen. This agreement was reached in

the summer of2002.

On September 30, 2002, Dr. Whiles and I met with Mr. Mosher, Mr. Greg Goode and

other EPA staff to discuss aspects of the issue that IEPA felt were critical to the investigation

such that a technicallyjustifiable dissolved oxygen standard supportable by sound science could

be developed. Agreement was reached among those in attendance on the key issues which Dr.

Whiles and Dr. Garvey should investigate to satisfactorily address all concerns. I had previously

suggested to the IAWA membership that the conclusions ofthe work done by Dr. Whiles and Dr.

Garvey should not be released publicly until both the EPA and the IAWA had opportunity to

review them. The IAWA readily agreed to this qualification. I advised those in attendance at the

EPA meeting that such was the qualification JAWA had placed on the work to be done by Dr.

Whiles and Dr. Garvey. Again, this was the procedure previously agreed upon between EPA

and JAWA during the ammonia nitrogenwater quality standard development. The EPA

representatives were appreciative ofthis consideration.

5

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Dr. Whiles and Dr. Garvey presented their initial draft report on their investigation to me

in early January of2004. I immediately circulated copies ofthe report to the JAWA Executive

Committee and the IAWA Nutrient Subcommittee as well as to IEPA. It was at this point in the

proceedings that I withdrew from a lead role in the development ofthe standard and Mr.

Streicher volunteered to coordinate the upcoming rule making proposal.

The previous discussion presents the need for a sound understanding of dissolved oxygen

dynamics in the waters ofour state such that meaningful and technicallyjustifiable nutrient

standards can be developed. Addressing either water quality parameter, nutrients or oxygen,

without consideration and a sound understanding ofthe other will not result in a comprehensive

and effective resolution ofthe eutrophication problem. I personally find it quite surprising and

very sad that we know no more about the interaction ofthese parameters than we presently do.

However, such is indeed the situation. I assure everyone present that the cost ofaddressing the

nutrient issue in Illinois will be extreme. However, I suggest that we look beyond the actual

monetary cost of suchrequirements. A statistic I have heard often quoted regarding the

wastewater treatment industry states that for every pound ofcarbonaceous waste we currently

remove from wastewater, four pounds ofcarbon in the form ofcarbon dioxide are released to the

atmosphere through the energy generation required for removal ofthat pound ofwaste. Nutrient

removal will only add to this energy requirement. A thorough understanding ofthe dynamics and

interaction ofnutrients and oxygen is absolutely essential for effective and efficient stewardship

which addresses this issue. A valid and scientifically based dissolved oxygen standard is

fundamental to this understanding.

6

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The second mandate involving the need for a current reassessment ofthe dissolved

oxygen standard, to which I earlier referred, involves the effort currently under way to develop

total maximum daily load allocations (TMDLs) for waters ofthe State which are determined not

to be achieving full use designation. The TMDL procedure evaluates a watershed in an attempt

to determine what the assimilation rate ofthat watershed is for various parameters.

Hypothetically, both point source and non-point source contributions ofvarious parametersare

considered in determining the reduction in loading necessary to realize use attainment for each

parameter ofconcern. However, there regrettably exists little apparent regulatory control other

than voluntary best management practices that can force non-point contributions ofvarious

parameters to be reduced to levels which are not detrimental to a watershed. The readily

controlled and regulated contributions to a waterbody come from point sources.

There may or maynot be effective additional controls which can be applied to point

sources that will assist in achieving full use attainment. I believe that a specific solution for a

specific location will not universally solve the problems experienced by all use impaired waters

across the State. The dynamics and physical conditions ofeach waterbody must be assessed and

considered as unique to that particular location. However, inadequate dissolved oxygen is listed

on the EPA draft 3 03(d) list as a fairly universal parameter contributing to non use attainment

and subsequent inclusion ofwater bodies on that list. The draft 2004 303(d) list contains

approximately 300 waterbody segments in Illinois listed as impaired, at least in part, by

inadequate dissolved oxygen concentrations. Approximately 800 water bodies are listed on the

draft 2004 303(d) list. Therefore approximately one third ofthe water bodies listed on the draft

7

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303(d) list are listed, at leastin part, because of a dissolved oxygen standard which many

professionals have indicated is overly protective and not specific to the needs ofthe waters of

Illinois.

This dissolved oxygen contribution to non-attainment is based on the current Illinois

dissolved oxygen water quality standard which, as previously discussed, has long been

considered to be ofquestionable validity. Some point source dischargers are now having a

minimum dissolved oxygen limit included in theirNPDES permits. In many situations I believe

that compliance with an effluent dissolved oxygen permit limit of6.0 mg/i will have virtually no

effect on improving receiving stream dissolved oxygen -concentration-s when the naturally

occurring ambient diurnal dissolved oxygen minima ofthat stream might easily be 4.5 mg/I. One

might speculate that over-protection is not necessarily unwarranted in its own right. However, I

again respectfu~llyremind the Board that compliance with a standard, over protective or not, has a

cost inherently associated with it. Increased dissolved oxygen concentrations in effluents require

that air be supplied to these waters before discharge. This air comes from blowers which are

powered by electricity.

As I previously mentioned, a rule ofthumb in our industry currently estimates that one

pound ofcarbonaceous waste removed from wastewaterresults in fourpounds ofcarbon in the

form of carbon dioxide released to the atmosphere. Are we as a society, through the TMDL

program, going to require that we aerate treatment plant effluents or provide additional treatment

within our plants to comply with a flawed dissolved oxygen standard and thereby perhaps

contribute another pound ortwo ofcarbon dioxide to the atmosphere forthe energy required to

8

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do so on a per unit basis? I certainly hope that our society chooses not to follow that path.

Rather, I strongly encourage the Board to adopt the dissolved oxygen standard beingproposed in

this proceeding. It has been developed by professional aquatic biologists in consideration ofthe

requirements ofthe aquatic biota ofour state. The proposed standard is based upon, and more

conservative than, the USEPA recommended guidance for development ofdissolved oxygen

standards. Thank you for this opportunity to again provide testimony and appear before the

Illinois Pollution Control Board.

CHO2I

22319412.1

9

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RECEIVED

BEFORE THE ILLINOIS POLLUTION CONTROL BOARDLERK’S

OFFICE

IN THE MATTEROF:

- )

JUN 152004

PROPOSED AMENDMENTS TO

-

)

R 04-25

Pollution

STATE OFControlILLINO~SBoard

DISSOLVED OXYGEN STANDARD

)

35 Iii. Adm. Code 302.206

)

WRITTEN TESTIMONY OF DENNIS STREICHER

My name is Dennis Streicher, and

I

am Director of Water and

Wastewater with the City of Elmhurst, Illinois. I have been employed by the

City of Elmhurst at the Wastewater Treatment Plant since 1972. I began my

career in Elmhurst as a chemist graduated with a biology degree. I worked

in the lab for approximately 15 years and was promoted to plant

superintendent, then to Assistant Director of Public Works, then to Director

of a newly created Department of Water & Wastewater. My responsibilities

include, in addition to operation of the wastewater treatment plant, operation

of the public water supply and of all storm water pumping utilities in the

City. I hold an Illinois Environmental Protection Agency Class 1 Operators

License and an Illinois Environmental Protection Agency Class “A” Potable

Water Operators License. A copy of my resume has been submitted as

IAWA Exhibit 3. I come before you today, however, representing the

Illinois Association ofWastewater Agencies (IAWA) as the committee chair

for dissolved oxygen standards in Illinois. I am also the current vice

president of administration with the IAWA.

1

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The IAWA is a professional association representing the major

wastewater treatment plants in the state of Illinois. We have about 100

members and affiliate members, which includes approximately

55

districts

and municipalities throughout the state. These agencies operate dozens of

publicly owned treatment works (POTWs). In addition to these POTWs,

water reclamation districts and municipalities, the largest Illinois private

wastewater treatment utility, which operates 12 plants, is also a member.

The representatives ofthese organizations are public officials, and include

both elected and appointed trustees of districts and appointed officials at

municipalities throughout the state. Our constituents are the citizens and

taxpayers of Illinois and are the same constituents as any other state or

public agency.

My goal is not to present the technical aspects of the proposed rule

change; Dr. James Garvey is the expert in that area. My hope is to present

the IAWA perspective on the existing dissolved oxygen regulations in

Illinois and why we feel that it is time to update those standards.

The managers of the POTWs in Illinois have two interests in mind:

one is the integrity of the environment in which they work; the second is to

responsibly represent their constituents and charge reasonable rates for

service. Our jobs as managers of the states’ POTWs are the real life

2

---

application of the water quality standards as promulgated in Illinois to the

operation of sometimes large but always-complex water treatment facilities.

These POTWs have an excellent record of producing treated effluent in

conformance with applicable NPDES permit limitations, due in large part to

the investment of public dollars to construct and upgrade the facilities and

the experience and dedication of those that operate and maintain the plants.

This proposed rulemaking is consistent with IAWA’s purpose and

past practice, to ensure that the standards by which it operates are based on

sound science and to take action to update standards where scientific

information supports such a change. IAWA has engaged the highest

qualified experts consistent with its purpose, and has performed a variety of

assessments that have been used by Illinois EPA and the Board to assess

Illinois standards governing the discharges of its members. IAWA proposed

the rulemaking that resulted in revision of certain water quality standards

governing ammonia nitrogen in R02- 19, and the Board adopted a revised

rule in 2002.

IAWA had participated in a prior rulemaking brought by the Illinois

EPA to revise the ammonia regulations. During the pendency of that

rulemaking, U.S. EPA revised the national criteria document for ammonia.

After discussing this revision with representatives of the Illinois EPA, it

3

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became apparent that the Illinois EPA did not have the interest or resources

to initiate rulemaking to again revise the ammonia regulations. Because of

the impact that the recently adopted ammonia regulations had on wastewater

treatment plants and because the regulations were in fact based upon

outdated science, IAWA initiated and saw to completion the rulemaking in

R02- 19 and ultimately the accompanying Illinois EPA implementation

regulations to ensure that Illinois’ ammonia effluent limitations were

consistent with U.S. EPA’s national criteria document and based upon sound

current science. The managers and officials who operate wastewater

treatment plants and who needed to invest in upgrades for their facilities,

were able to make the case to their respective District Boards and City

Councils for authorization for the necessary dollars to meet an appropriate

and justifiable ammonia standard.

IAWA is committed to following the same course of action as it did in

the ammonia rules whenever it is apparent that effluent limitations and water

quality standards that have a significant impact on POTWs are in need of

revision and the Illinois EPA does not have the resources or the inclination

to initiate the appropriate evaluation and ultimate regulatory proceedings.

This dissolved oxygen rulemaking is IAWA’s second such effort. Various

IAWA members were involved in a series of discussions with

4

---

representatives of the Illinois EPA and other regulators, many of whom had

publicly stated that the existing Illinois dissolved oxygen water quality

standard found at 35 Iii. Admin. Code Section 203 was not based on sound

science was inconsistent with USEPA’s national criteria document and was

too stringent. At the same time, JAWA was aware that many water bodies

throughout Illinois were not in compliance with the existing dissolved

oxygen water quality standard or would not be found to be in compliance if

dissolved oxygen measurements were taken early in the morning due to the

naturally occurring diurnal dissolved oxygen fluctuation cycle.

IAWA decided to undertake a scientific assessment of the dissolved

oxygen standard almost three years ago. In 2002, IAWA engaged Dr. James

Garvey and Dr. Matt Whiles, who concluded that the Illinois standard was

too rigid and not consistent with the U.S. EPA’s National Criteria Document

(NCD) for dissolved oxygen. Dr Jim Garvey and Dr. Matt Wiles have done

an excellentjob in putting together a review of data that has been generated

since the 1980’s, have applied their knowledge and skills and training to

their understanding of all of the data generated since that time, and have

made recommendations that the IAWA feels are reasonable and accurate.

Because revision of the dissolved oxygen standard was not a priority of

5

---

Illinois EPA, the IAWA elected to itself bring this petition to the Illinois

Pollution Control Board.

The JAWA is very concerned that the existing dissolved oxygen

standard is triggering other legal requirements that are not warranted by

scientific information. The Illinois EPA is currently insisting on imposition

of a dissolved oxygen water quality effluent limitation in NPDES Permits of

6 mg/L to be met continuously. It is IAWA’s understanding that this

effluent limitation is being placed in NPDES Permits to ensure that the

existing water quality standard is not violated. In instances where POTWs

are unable to comply with this limitation, the Illinois EPA has granted

construction schedules requiring investment of public dollars to meet it.

Illinois EPA is required by Section 305(b) of the Clean Water Act to

assess the water quality of Illinois waters and prepare a report, commonly

known as the 305(b) report. Based on this report, Illinois EPA is

additionally required by Section 303(d) ofthe Clean Water Act to develop a

list of impaired waters in Illinois, commonly known as the 303(d) List.

While IAWA has not counted the water body segments in the 305(b) report

or the stream segments in the 303(d) report for purposes of reference there

were 741 segments listed in the 1998 303(d) report and 798 segments in the

final 2002 303(d) report.

6

---

The Illinois EPA is in the process of finalizing the 2004 Section

305(b) and Section 303(d) reports. IAWA has reviewed the. draft reports.

The Illinois EPA lists approximately 251 water body segments as not

complying with the dissolved oxygen standard in the draft 305(b) report.

There-are 302 segments listed in the 3 03(d) report as impaired for dissolved

oxygen. The 305(b) and 303(d) reports are then used to determine the

waters and parameters for which Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs)

will be established, establishing load limits for dischargers to each listed

waterway. All of these requirements adhere to the current standards, even if

those standards are not scientifically based, as we believe to be the case with

the Illinois dissolved oxygen standard. This can only result in unrealistic and

unwarranted permit limits requiring expensive capital improvements and

modifications to wastewater treatment facilities at taxpayer expense, or

unjustified reasons for plant expansion.

In my position at the City of Elmhurst, I together with other IAWA

member agencies have watched and participated with great interest in the

Illinois EPA’s efforts to establish TMDLs for the West Branch of the

DuPage River, East Branch of the DuPage River and Salt Creek Basins.

These three TMDLs mark the first effort by the Illinois EPA to develop

TMDLs in urban areas with significant potential impact from POTWs,

7

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combined sewer overflows, storm sewer discharges, and other urban

impacts. In the initial drafts the TMDLs for the East Branch of the DuPage

River and Salt Creek would have required limitations on CBOD and

ammonia because these streams were listed as impaired under the existing

standard for dissolved oxygen. The potential for the TMDLs to be finalized

with an ultimate requirement for more restrictive CBOD and ammonia

limitations in existing NPDES Permits could have a significant impact on

POTW discharges. Either expensive capital investment would be required

with increased operational expenses or a loss in the existing treatment plant

capacity that has been built to service future growth may be required.

Additional efforts were discussed as well including stream re-aeration and

dam removal as additional potential means of meeting the existing dissolved

oxygen water quality standard. The IAWA and I believe that these

consequences of failure to meet the standard should only result if there is an

actual environmental problem applying a scientifically sound dissolved

oxygen water quality limitation. Let me illustrate with a description of what

is happening today in the Salt Creek basin. The plant I manage discharges to

Salt Creek in DuPage County. As I said, the Illinois EPA has or is about to

submit a completed TMDL on Salt Creek to the USEPA. That TMDL has

found Salt Creek to be impaired for dissolved oxygen and had recommended

8

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that significant additional effluent limits on CBOD and ammonia be

imposed on POTWs in the watershed. The TMDL estimated costs for those

improvements to be about 18 million dollars. These are costs that the

POTWs will bear alone. At this time stakeholders in the basin, and I am one

of them, are deeply involved in an effort to form a watershed committee, one

of the goals of this committee will be to attempt to develop more meaningful

data, including biotic data, to further refine the TMDL study and hopefully

mitigate the future costs. There is no guarantee that we will be successful.

The cost of this effort in time and dollars will certainly be significant.

IAWA believes that given the large number of water body and stream

segments that are listed as non-compliant with the current dissolved oxygen

standard or impaired for dissolved oxygen reasons, Illinois should insure that

the existing dissolved oxygen water quality standard is an appropriate

standard based upon sound science and consistent with USEPA’s national

criteria document. The costs now being incurred on the Salt Creek and East

Branch of the DuPage River basin could be multiplied by each of those

additional basins identified as impaired for dissolved oxygen using the

existing inappropriate standard.

JAWA believes this proposed dissolved oxygen rulemaking is

consistent with Section 303(c) of the Clean Water Act, 33 U.S.C. 13 13(c),

9

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which requires the states review and re-evaluate existing water quality

standards within three years of adoption of revised national criteria by

USEPA. To date, despite the acknowledgement by many within the Illinois

EPA that the existing dissolved water quality standard is out of date and

inconsistent with the NCD, Illinois has not undertaken such a review.

Dr. Garvey points out in

“An Assessment of National and Illinois

Dissolved Oxygen Water Quality Criteria”

that dissolved oxygen

concentrations fluctuate in natural systems. Dissolved oxygen has a diel

fluctuation, it has a seasonal fluctuation, and concentrations could be

different through the water column. Animals living in those conditions have

evolved a tolerance for those fluctuations. The current regulation does not

take into account seasonal fluctuations.

My own career began at the same time as the development of many of

today’s water quality regulations. I have been able to observe that

development from the inception of the Clean Water Act to today. I observed

the infant Illinois EPA and the Illinois Pollution Control Board struggling

with the proposal and adoption of water quality standards and were faced

with almost insurmountable demands to develop them quickly. At that time

there was a rash of new standards being developed with the aim of quickly

attaining water quality goals. Many of those standards are still in effect

10

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today. The dissolved oxygen standard used in Illinois today was

promulgated during that initial period almost three decades ago and has not

been revised since.

When the work of Dr. Garvey and Dr. Whiles and the proposed

regulation were completed, I was excited to volunteer to represent the

IAWA in the effort to see this study through rules making at the pollution

control board and to be a part of the process to develop realistic dissolved

oxygen standards in Illinois. As part of this effort I contacted and shared the

report with a number of other groups within the state to look for their

support and for their comments on the study. I sent letters to the Illinois

Department of Agriculture, the Illinois Farm Bureau (ILFB), the Illinois

Environmental Regulatory Group (IERG), and the Illinois State Water

Survey. I personally spoke to members of all of those agencies that I

mentioned and asked them for their thoughts and if they had concerns to let

me know and to follow up on my letters sent to them. Those letters are

submitted as IAWA’s Exhibit 4. In every single instance the persons I spoke

to expressed support and a hope that the board would adopt this rule.

I also copied many of the citizen advocacy groups such as the Sierra

Club, Prairie Rivers Network, The Salt Creek Watershed Alliance, DuPage

Conservation Foundation and the Environmental Law and Policy Center.

11

---

Our goal was to offer those folks an opportunity to comment as well. The

goal of IAWA was to be as inclusive as possible.

In summary, it is commonly known throughout the state that the

current dissolved oxygen regulation is not scientifically justifiable. Because

of its importance in the regulatory regime in Illinois, an accurate and

realistic dissolved oxygen standard is critical. IAWA has spent considerable

time and incurred significant expense to ensure that it has the most recent

and strongest scientific data to support its rulemaking. I urge the Board to

proceed with the rulemaking as proposed by the IAWA. Thank you for this

opportunity to address this issue before the Board.

CHO2/ 22319408.1

12

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RVED

CLERK’S OFFICE

-

JUN 152004

BEFORE THE ILLINOIS POLLUTION CONTROL BOAR~TATE

OF ILLINOIS

Pollution Contro’ Board

IN THE MATTER OF:

)

)

PROPOSED

AMENDMENTS

TO

)

R 04-25

DISSOLVED OXYGEN STANDARD

)

35 Iii. Adm. Code 302.206

)

IAWA EXHIBIT LIST

-

The Illinois Association ofWastewater Agencies (“IAWA”), by its attorneys Gardner

Carton & Douglas, submits these exhibits to the pre-filed written testimony ofits witnesses for

the hearings in this matter.

1.

An Assessment ofNational and Illinois Dissolved Oxygen Water Quality Criteria,

Dr. James E. Garvey and Dr. Matt R. Whiles ofSouthern Illinois University (previously filed).

2.

United States Environmental Protection Agency’s National Criteria Document

(“NCD”) for Dissolved Oxygen (1986).

-

3.

Resume ofDennis Streicher.

4.

Copies ofletters from Dennis Streicher to various organizations concerning the

proposed rulemaking.

5.

Resume ofDr. James Garvey.

6.

Resume ofDr. Matt Whiles.

Respectfully submitted,

~‘Oneofthe Attorneys ~

---

Roy M. Harsch

Sheila H. Deely

GARDNER CARTON & DOUGLAS LLP

191 N. Wacker— Suite 3700

Chicago, IL 60606

312-569-1000

CHO2/ 22319686.1

2

---

m

—1-

---

An Assessment ofNational and Illinois Dissolved Oxygen Water Quality Criteria, Dr.

James E. Garvey and Dr. Matt R. Whiles ofSouthern Illinois University

(Appended to Petition).

---

m

:3-

-4

N)

---

United

States

Office of

Water

EPA

440/586.003

Environmental Protection

Regulations

and

Standarc~

April 1986

Agency

Criteria and ~andards

Div~siOl1

Water

Weshington,DC

20460

pB86-2082

III

liii~IIIIIIIIIlIIIIIIIIIIIII

~,EPA

Criteria

for

.

Dissolved Oxygen

-~---—~—.--—---—----~-~--——

-—--~

---

~O272 -101

(SseANS~.-Z39.18)

Sli

Instructions on Reverse

OP~W~ALI’ORM

272

(4—77)

(For.~,,rIyNTIS.—35)

0i~-,,”n~ntofCommerc.~

REPORT

DOCUMENTATION 1.

REPORT

NO.

2.

-

EPA 440/5-86-003

4. lIti. and SubtitlI

j~.

F~lS86 20 8 2 5 31~3

5.

Report

Datn

Ambient

Water Quality Criteria for Dissolved Oxygen.

.

April, 1986

6.

7. Author(s)

—

~ç~~man, Gary

g. performêng Organization

N.m.

an& Addr.ss

.

U. S. Environmental Protection Agency

Office of Research and Development

Environmental Research Laboratories

Duluth,.Minnesota

Narragansett, Rhode Island

S.

?er~rrnin~Or~anizot~or,

Rept. No.

10. Project/Task/Work Unit No.

.

11.

contract(C) or

Grant(G) No.

(C)

(G)

12. Sponsoring Organization Nams and Address

U. S. Environmental Protection Agency

Office qf Water Regulations and Standards

.

Criteria and Standards Division (WH—585)

401 M St., S.W.

Washington, D. C. 20460

1~.Type of

Report

& Period C~vera~

I

.

14.

15.

Supplementary

Not.s

1~

Abstract (Limit:

200 words)

The Document reviews data which are currently available on the effects of low

levels of dissolved oxygen on the health, growth and reproduction of freshwater

aquatic organisms. Criteria for the protection of freshwater aquatic organisms are

developed, based principally on data derived from studies on fish. The Criteria

are presented in terms of cold and warm water species, early life stages and other

life stages, as well as the length of exposure to low D. 0. concentrations.

11.

Document Analysis a.

Descriptors

Dissolved Oxygen; Oxygen; Water Quality; rreshwater; Aquatic Life; Fish.

-.

b.

lderttlfl.rs/Open.Ended

Terms

~Ambient Water Quality Criteria; Surface Water Quality

C.

COSATI Field/Group

1$. AvailabilIty Statement

19. Security Class (This

Report)

.J21.

o. of Pages

Release Unl.irnited

20.

Security

Class (This Page)

4.~.

22.

“rice

.—.

---

Ambient Aquatic Life Water Quaflty

Criteria for Dissolved Oxygen

(Freshwater)

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Office of Research and Development

Environmental Research Laboratories

Duluth, Minnesota

Narragansett, Rhode Island

---

NOTICES

This document has been reviewed by the Criteria and Standards Division,

Office of Water Regulations and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency, and approved for publication.

Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute

endorsement or recommendation for use.

This document is available to the public through the National Technical

Information Service (NTIS), 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia 22161.

ii

---

FOREWORD

Section 304(a)(1) of the Clean Water Act of 1977 (PL 95-217) requires the-

Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency to publish water quality

criteria that accurately reflect the latest scientific knowledge on the kind

and extent-of all identifiable effects on health and welfare that might be

expected from the presence of pollutants in any body of water, including

groundwater.

-

This document is a revision of proposed criteria based- upon a

consideration of comments received from other Federal agencies, State

agencies, special interest groups, and individual scientists. Criteria

cor~tained in this document replace any previously published EPA aquatic life

criteria for the same pollutant(s).

-

The term “water quality criteria” is used in two sections of the Clean

Water Act, Section 304(a)(1) and Section 303(c)(2). This term has a different

program impact in each section. In Section 304, the term represents a non—

regulatory, scientific assessment of ecological effects. Criteria presented

in- this document are such scientific assessments. If water quality criteria

associated with specific stream uses are adopted by a State as water quality

standards under Section 303, they become enforceable maximum acceptable

pollutant concentrations in ambient waters within that State. Water quality

criteria adopted in State water quality standards could have the same numer-

ical values as criteria developed under Section 304. However, in many

situations States might want to adjust water quality criteria developed under

Section 304 to reflect local environmental conditions and human exposure

patterns before incorporation into water quality standards. It is not until

their adoption as part of State water quality standards that criteria become

regulatory.

Guidelines to assist States in the modification of criteria presented in

this document, in the development of water quality, standards, and in other

water-related programs of this agency, have been developed by EPA.

William A. Whittington

Director

Office of Water Regulations and Standards

lii

---

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Gary Chapman

Author

Environmental Research Laboratory

Narragansett, Rhode Island

Clerical Support: Nancy Lanpheare

iv

---

CONTENTS

Page

Foreword

iii

Acknowledgements

.

iv

Tables

vi

Figures

vii

Introduction

1

Salmonids

4

Physiology

4

Acute Lethal Concentrations

5

Growth

5

Reproduction

8

Early Life Stages

8

Behavior

10

Swimming

11

Field Studies

11

Non-Salmonids

12

Physiology

12

Acute Lethal Concentrations

12

Growth

13

Reproduction

17

Early Life Stages

17

Behavior

18

Swimming

19

Field Studies

19

Invertebrates

20

Other Consideration

23

Effects of Fluctuations

23

Temperature and Chemical Stress

25

Disease Stress

26

Conclusions

27

National -Criterion

33

References

39

V

---

TABLES,

Page

1. Percent reproduction in growth rate of salmonids at various dissolved

oxygen concentrations expressed as the median value from n tests with

-

each species

6

2. Influence of temperature on growth rate of chinook salmon held at

various dissolved oxygen concentrations

7

3. Influence of temperature on growth rate of coho salmon held at

various dissolved oxygen concentrations

7

4. Percent reduction in growth rate of some nonsalmonid fish held at

various dissolved oxygen concentrations expressed as the median value

from n tests with each species

-

15

5. Effects of temperature on the percent reduction in growth rate of

largemouth bass exposed to various dissolved oxygen concentrations in

ponds

16

6. Acutely lethal concentrations of dissolved oxygen to aquatic insects.. 22

7. Survival of rainbow trout embryos as a function of intergravel

dissolved oxygen concentrations and water velocity as compared to

dissolved oxygen concentrations established as criteria or estimated

as producting various levels of production impairment

32

8. Water quality criteria for ambient dissolved oxygen concentrations..

.

34

9. Sample calculations for determining daily means and 7-day mean

dissolved oxygen concentrations (30-day averages are calculated in a

similar fashion using 30-day data)

35

Vi

---

FIGURES

Page

1. Effect of continuous exposure to various mean dissolved oxygen

-

concentrations on survival of embryos and larval stages of eight

species of nonsalmonid fish

14

vii

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Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Dissolved Oxygen

FRESHWATER AQUATIC LIFE

I. Introduction

A sizable body of literature on the oxygen requirements of freshwater

aquatic life has been thoroughly summarized (Doudoroff and Shuinway, 1967,

1970; Warren et al., 1973; Davis, 1975a,b; and Alabaster and Lloyd, 1980).

These reviews and other documents describing the dissolved oxygen requirements

of aquatic organisms (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1976; Inter-

national Joint Commission, 1975; Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, 1980) and

more recent data were considered in the preparation of this document. The

references cited below are limited to those considered to be the most defin-

itive and most representative of the preponderance of scientific evidence

concerning the dissolved oxygen requirements of freshwater organisms. The

guidelines used in deriving aquatic life criteria for toxicants (Federal

Register, 45 FR 79318, November 28, 1980) are not applicable because of the

different nature of the data bases. Chemical toxicity data bases rely on

standard 96-h LC5O tests and standard chronic tests; there are very few data

of either type on dissolved oxygen.

Over the last 10 years the dissolved oxygen criteria proposed by various

agencies and researchers have generally reflected two basic schools of

thought. One maintained that a dynamic approach should be used so that the

criteria would vary with natural ambient dissolved oxygen minima in the waters

of concern (Doudoroff and Shumway, 1970) or with dissolved oxygen requirements

of fish expressed in terms of percent saturation (Davis, 1975a,b). The other

maintained that, while not ideal, a single minimum allowable concentration

should adequately protect the diversity of aquatic life in fresh waters (U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency, 1976). Both approaches relied on a simple

minimum allowable dissolved oxygen concentration as the basis for their

criteria. A simple minimum dissolved oxygen concentration was also the most

practicable approach in waste load allocation models of the time.

Expressing the criteria in terms of the actual amount of dissolved oxygen

available to aquatic organisms in milligrams per liter (mg/i) is considered

more direct and easier to administer compared to expressing the criteria in

terms of percent saturation. Dissolved oxygen criteria expressed as percent

saturation, such as discussed by Davis (1975a,b), are more complex and could

often result in unnecessarily stringent criteria in the cold months and

potentially unprotective criteria during periods of high ambient temperature

or at high elevations. Oxygen partial pressure is subject to the same

temperature problems as percent saturation.

1

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The approach recommended by Doudoroff and Shumway (1970), in which the

criteria vary seasonally with the natural minimum dissolved oxygen concentra-

-

tions in the waters of concern, was adopted by the National Academy of

Sciences and National Academy of Engineering (NAS/NAE, 1973). This approach

has some merit, but the lack of data (natural minimum concentrations) makes

its application difficult, and it can also produce unnecessarily stringent or

unprotective criteria during periods of extreme temperature.

The more simplistic approach to dissolved oxygen criteria has bee-n

supported by the findings of a select committee of scientists specifically

established by the Research Advisory Board of the International. Joint

Commission to review the dissolved oxygen criterion for the Great Lakes

(Magnuson et al., 1979). The committee concluded that a simple criterion (an

average criterion of 6.5 mg/i and a minimum criterion of 5.5 mg/i) was

preferable to one based on percent saturation (or oxygen partial pressure) and

was scientifically sound because the rate of oxygen transfer across fish gills

is directly dependent on the mean difference in oxygen partial pressure across

the gill. Also, the total amount of oxygen delivered to the gills is a more

specific limiting factor than is oxygen partial pressure ~ Se. The format

of this otherwise simple criterion was more sophisticated than earlier

criteria with the introduction of a two-concentration criterion comprised of

both a mean and a minimum. This two-concentration criteria structure is

similar to that currently used for toxicants (Federal Register, 45 FR 79318,

November 28, 1980). EPA agrees with the International Joint Commission’s

conclusions and will recommend a—two-number criterion for dissolved oxygen.

The national criteria presented herein represent the best estimates,

based on the data available, of dissolved oxygen concentrations necessary to

protect aquatic life and its uses. Previous water quality criteria have

either emphasized (Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, 1968) or

rejected (National Academy of Sciences and National Academy of Engineering,

1972) separate dissolved oxygen criteria for coidwater and warmwater biota. A

warmwater-coldwater dichotomy is made in this criterion. To simplify discus-

sion, however, the text of the document is split into salmonid and non-

salmonid sections. The salmonid-nonsalmonid dichotomy is predicated on the

much greater knowledge regarding the dissolved oxygen requirements of

salmonids and on the critical influence of intergravel dissolved oxygen

concentration on salmonid embryonic and larval development. Nonsalmonid fish

include many other coidwater and coolwater fish plus all warmwater fish. Some

of these species are known to be less sensitive than salmonids to low dis-

solved oxygen concentrations. Some other nonsalmonids may prove to be at

least as sensitive to low dissolved oxygen concentrations as the salmonids;

among the nonsalmonids of likely sensitivity are the herrings (Clupeidae), the

smelts (Osmeridae), the pikes (Esocidae), and the sculpins (Cottidae).

Although there is little published data regarding the dissolved oxygen

requirements of most nonsalmonid species, there is apparently enough anecdotal

information to suggest that many coolwater species are more sensitive to

dissolved oxygen depletion than are warmwater species. According to the

American Fisheries Society (1978), the term “coolwater fishes” is not vigor-

ously defined, but it refers generally to those species which are distributed

by temperature preference between the “coldwater” salmonid communities to the

north and the more diverse, often centrarchid-dominated “warmwater” assem-

2

---

blages •to the south. Many states have more stringent dissolved oxygen

standards for colder waters, waters that contain either salmonids, nonsalmonid

coolwater fish, or the sensitive centrarchid, the smallmouth bass.

The research and sociological emphasis for dissolved oxygen has been

biased towards fish, especially the more economically important species in the

family Salmonjdae. Several authors

-

(Doudoroff and Shumway, 1970; Davis,

.975a,b) have discussed this bias in considerable detail and have drawn

similar conclusions regarding the effects of low dissolved oxygen on fresh-

water invertebrates. Doudoroff and Shumway (1970) stated that although some

invertebrate species are about as sensitive as the moderately susceptible

fishes, all invertebrate species need not be protected in order to protect the

food source for fisheries because many invertebrate species, inherently more

tolerant than fish, would increase in abundance. Davis (1975a,b) also

concluded that invertebrate species would probably be adequately protected if

the fish populations are protected. He stated that the composition of

invertebrate communities may shift to more tolerant forms selected from the

resident community or recruited from outside the community. In general,

stream invertebrates that are requisite riffle-dwellers probably have a higher

dissolved oxygen requirement than other aquatic invertebrates. The riffle

habitat maximizes the potential dissolved oxygen flux to organisms living in

the high water velocity by rapidly replacing the water in the immediate

vicinity of the organisms. This may be especially important for organisms

that exist clinging to submerged substrate in the riffles. In the absence of

data to the contrary, EPA will follow the assumption that a’dissolved oxygen

criterion protective of fish will be adequate.

One of the most difficult problems faced during this attempt to gather,

interpret, assimilate, and generalize the scientific data base for dissolved

oxygen effects on fish has been the variability in test conditions used by

investigators. Some toxicological methods for measuring the effects of

chemicals on aquatic life have been standardized for nearly 40 years; this has

riot been true of dissolved oxygen research. Acute lethality tests with

dissolved oxygen vary in the extreme with respect to types of exposure

(constant vs. declining), duration of exposure (a few hours vs. a week ~r

more), type of endpoint (death vs. loss of equilibrium), type of oxygen

control (nitrogen stripping vs. vacuum degassing), and type of exposure

chamber (open to the atmosphere vs. sealed). In addition there are the normal

sources of variability that influence standardized toxicity tests, including

seasonal differences in the condition of test fish, acclimation or lack of

acclimation to test conditions, type and level of feeding, test temperature,

age of test fish, and.stresses due to test conditions. Chronic toxicity tests

are typically of two types, full life cycle tests or early life stage tests.

These have come to be rather rigorously standardized and are essential to the

toxic chemical criteria established by EPA. These tests routinely are assumed

to include the most sensitive life stage, and the criteria then presume to

protect all life stages. With dissolved oxygen research, very few tests would

be considered legitimate chronic tests; either they fail to include a full

life cycle, they fail to include both embryo and larval stages, or they fail

to include an adequate period of post-larval feeding and growth.

3

---

Instead of establishing year-round criteria to protect all life stages,

it may be possible to establish seasonal criteria based on the life stages

present. Thus, special early life stage criteria are routinely accepted for

salmonid early life stages because of their usual intergravel environment.

The same concept may be extended to any species that appear to have more

stringent dissolved oxygen requirements during one period of their life

history. The flexibility afforded by such a dichotomy in criteria carries

with it the responsibility to accurately determine the presence or absence of

the more sensitive stages prior to invocation of the less stringent criteria..

Such presence/absence data must be more site-specific than national in scope,

so that temperature, habitat, or calendar specifications are not possible in

this document. In the absence of such site-specific determinations the

default criteria would be those that would protect all life stages year-round;

this is consistent with the present format for toxic chemical criteria.

II. Salmonids

The effects of various dissolved oxygen concentrations on the well—being

of aquatic organisms have been studied more extensively for fish of the family

Salmonidae (which includes the genera Coregonus, Oncorhynchus, Prosopium,

Salmo, Salvelinus, Stenodus, and Thymallus) than for any other family of

organisms. Nearly all these studies have been conducted under laboratory

conditions, simplifying cause and effect analysis, but minimizing or eliminat-

ing potentially important environmental factors, such as physical -and chemical

stresses associated with suboptimal water quality, as well, as competition,

behavior, and other related activities. Most laboratory studies on the

effects of dissolved oxygen concentrations on salmonids have emphasized

growth, physiology, or embryonic development. Other studies have described

acute lethality or the effects of dissolved oxygen concentration on swimming

performance.

A. Physiology

Many studies have reported a wide variety of physiological responses to

low dissolved oxygen concentrations. Usually, these investigations were of

short duration, measuring cardiovascular and metabolic alterations resulting

from hypoxic exposures of relatively rapid onset.

‘

While these data provide

only minimal guidance for establishing environmentally acceptable dissolved

oxygen concentrations, they do provide considerable insight into the mechan-

isms responsible for the overall effects observed in the entire organism. For

example, a good correlation exists between oxygen dissociation curves for

rainbow trout blood (Cameron, 1971) and curves depicting the reduction in

growth of salmonids (Brett and Blackburn, 1981; Warren et al., 1973) and the

reduction in swimming ability of salmonids (Davis et al., 1963). These

correlations indicate that the blood’s reduced oxygen loading capacity at

lower dissolved oxygen concentrations limits the amount of oxygen delivered to

the tissues, restricting the ability of fish to maximize metabolic perform-

ance.

In general, the significance of metabolic and physiological studies on

the establishment of -dissolved oxygen criteria must be indirect, because their

applicability to environmentally acceptable dissolved oxygen concentrations

requires greater extrapolation and more assumptions than those required for

data on growth, swimming, and survival.

4

---

B. Acute Lethal Concentrations

Doudoroff and Shumway (1970) summarized studies on lethal concentrations

-

of dissolved oxygen for salmonids; analysis of these data indicates that the

test procedures were highly variable, differing in duration, exposure regime,

and reported endpoints. Only in a few cases could a 96-hr LC5O be calculated.

Mortality or loss of equilibrium usually occurred at concentrations between 1

and 3 mg/i.

Mortality of brook trout has occurred in less than one hour at 10°Cat

dissolved oxygen concentrations below 1.2 mg/i, and no fish survived exposure

at or below 1.5 mg/i for 10 hours (Shepard, 1955). Lethal dissolved oxygen

concentrations increase at higher water temperatures and longer exposures. A

3.5 hr exposure killed all trout at 1.1 and 1.6 mg/i at 10 and 20°C,respec-

tively (Downing and Merkens, 1957). A 3.5-day exposure killed all trout at

1.3 and 2.4 mg/i at 10 and 20°C, respectively. The corresponding no-mortality

levels were 1.9 and 2.7 mg/i. The difference between dissolved oxygen

concentrations causing total mortality and those allowing complete survival

was about 0.5 mg/i when exposure duration was less than one week. If the

period of exposure to low dissolved oxygen concentrations is limited to less

than 3.5 days, concentrations of dissolved oxygen of 3 mg/i or higher should

produce no direct mortality of salmonids.

More recent studies confirm these lethal levels in chronic tests with

early life stages of salmonids (Siefert et al., 1974; Siefert’ and Spoor, 1973;

Brooke and Colby, 1980); although studies with lake trout (Carison and

Siefert, 1974) indicate that 4.5 mg/i is lethal at 10°C(perhaps a marginally

acceptable temperature for embryonic lake trout).

C. Growth

Growth of salmonids is most susceptible to the effects of low dissolved

oxygen concentrations when the metabolic demands or opportunities are great-

est. This is demonstrated by the greater sensitivity of growth to low

dissolved oxygen concentrations when temperatures are high and food most

plentiful (Warren et al., 1973). A total of more than 30 growth tests have

been reported by Herrmann et al. (1962), Fisher (1963), Warren et al. (1973),

Brett and Blackburn (1981), and Spoor (1981). Results of these tests are not

easily compared because the tests encompass a wide range of species, tempera-

tures, food types, and fish sizes. These factors produced a variety of

control growth rates which, when combined with a wide range of test durations

and fish numbers, resulted in an array of statistically diverse test results.

The results from most of these 30-plus tests were converted to growth

rate data for fish exposed to low dissolved oxygen concentrations and were

compared to control growth rates by curve-fitting procedures (JRB Associates,

1984). Estimates of growth rate reductions were similar regardless of the

type of curve employed, but the quadratic model was judged to be superior and

was used in the growth rate analyses contained in this document. The apparent

relative sensitivity of each species to dissolved oxygen depletion may be

influenced by fish size, test duration, temperature, and diet. Growth rate

data (Table 1) from these tests with salmon and trout fed unrestricted rations

indicated median growth rate reductions of 7, 14, and 25 percent for fish held

5

---

at 6, 5., and 4 mg/i, respectively (JRB Associates, 1984). However, median

growth rate reductions for the various species ranged from 4 to 9 percent at 6

mg/i, 11 to 17 percent at 5 mg/i, and 2. to 29 percent at 4 mg/i.

Table 1. Percent reduction in growth rate of salmonids at various dissolved

oxygen concentrations expressed as the median value from n tests

with each species (calculated from JRB Associates, 1984).

Dissolved

Species (number of tests)

-

Oxygen

Chinook

Coho

Sockeye

Rainbow

Brown

Lake

(mg/i) Salmon (6)

Salmon (12) Salmon (1) Trout (2)

Trout (1) Trout (2)

90

0

0000

80

0

0100

71

1

2512

674

6967

5

16

11

12

17

13

16

4

29

2.

22

25

23

29’

3

47

-

37

33

37

‘36

47

Median

Temp. (°C) 15

18

15

12

12

12

Considering the variability inherent in growth studies, the apparent

reductions -in growth rate sometimes seen above 6 mg/i are not usually statist-

ically significant. The reductions in growth rate occurring at dissolved

oxygen concentrations below about 4 mg/i should be considered severe; between

4 mg/i and the threshold -of effect, which variably appears to be between 6 and

10 mg/i in individual tests, the effect on growth rate is moderate to slight

if the exposures are sufficiently long.

Within, the growth data presented by Warren et al. (1973), the greatest

effects and highest thresholds of effect occurred at high temperatures (17.8

to 21.7°C). In two tests conducted at about 8.5°C,the growth rate reduction

at 4 mg/i of dissolved oxygen averaged 12 percent. Thus, even at the maximum

feeding levels in these tests, dissolved oxygen levels down to 5 mg/i probably

have little effect on growth rate at temperatures below 10°C.

Growth data from Warren et al. (1973) included chinook salmon tests

conducted at various temperatures. These data (Table 2) indicated that growth

tests conducted at 10-15°C would underestimate the effects of low dissolved

oxygen concentrations at higher temperatures by a significant margin. For

example, at 5 mg/i growth was not affected at 13°Cbut was reduced by 34

percent if temperatures were as high as 20°C. Examination of the test

temperatures associated with the growth rate reductions listed in Table 1

shows that most data represent temperatures between 12 and 15°C. At the

higher temperatures often associated with low dissolved oxygen concentrations,

the growth rate reductions would have been greater if the generalizations of

6

---

the chinook salmon data are applicable to salmonids in general. Coho salmon

growth studies (Warren et al., 1973) showed a similar result over a range of

temperatures from 9 to 18°C,but the trend was reversed in two tests near 22°C

(Table 3). Except for the 22°Ccoho tests, the coho and chinook salmon

results support the idea that effects of low dissolved oxygen become more

severe at higher temperatures. This conclusion is supported by data on

iargemouth bass (to be discussed later) and by the increase

in

metabolic rate

produced by high temperatures.

-

.

-

Table 2. Influence of temperature on growth rate of chinook salmon held at

various dissolved oxygen concentrations (calculated from Warren et

al., 1973; JRB Associates, 1984).

Dissolved

Percent Reduction in Growth Rate at

Oxygen

(mg/i)

-

8.4°C 13.0°C 13.2°C

‘

17.8°C 18.6°C 21.7°C

9

00000

0

8

00002

0

7

-0

0

4

0

8

2

6

0

0

8

5

19

14

5

0

0

16

16

34

34

4

7

4

-

25

33

‘53

65

3

26

22

36

57

77

100

Table 3. Influence of temperature

various dissolved oxygen

al., 1973; JRB Associates,

on growth rate of coho salmon

concentrations (calculated from

1984).

held at

Warren et

Dissolved

Oxygen

(mg/l)

-

Percent Reduction in Growth Rate at

-

8.6°C 12.9°C 13.0°C 18.0°C 21.6°C 21.8°C

10

0

0

0

0

0

0

9

00050

0

8

0

1

2

10

0

0

7

1

4

6

17

0

6

6

4

10

13

27

0

1

5

9

18

23

38

0

7

4

17

29

36

51

4

19

3

28

42

51

67

6

37

Effects of dissolved oxygen concentration on the growth rate of salmonids

fed restricted rations have been less intensively investigated. Thatcher

(1974) conducted a series of tests with coho salmon at 15°Cover a wide range

of food consumption rates at 3, 5, and 8 mg/l of dissolved oxygen. The only

significant reduction in growth rate was observed at 3 mg/i and food consump-

7

---

tion rates greater than about 70 percent of maximum, in these studies,

Thatcher noted that fish at 5 mg/i appeared to expend less energy in swimming

activity than those at 8 mg/i. In natural conditions, where fish may be

rewarded for energy expended

-

defending preferred territory or searching for

food, a dissolved oxygen concentration of 5 mg/i may restrict these activ—

i ties.

The effect of forced activity and dissolved oxygen concentration on the

growth of coho salmon was studied by Hutchins (1974). The growth rates of

salmon fed to repletion at a dissolved oxygen concentration of 3 mg/i and held

at current velocities of 8.5 and 20 cm/sec were reduced by 20 and 65 percent,

respectively. At 5 mg/i, no reduction of growth rate was seen at the slower

velocity, but a 15 percent decrease occurred at the higher velocity.

The effects of various dissolved oxygen concentrations on the growth rate

of coho salmon (“~ 5 cm long) in laboratory streams with an average current

velocity of 12 cm/sec have been reported by Warren et al. (1973). In this

series of nine tests, salmon consumed aquatic invertebrates living in the

streams. Results at temperatures from 9.5°to 15.5°Csupported the res~1tsof

earlier laboratory studies; at higher growth rates (40 to 50 mg/g/day),

dissolved oxygen levels below 5 mg/i reduced growth rate, but at lower growth

rates (0 to 20 mg/g/day),

rio

effects were seen at concentrations down to 3

mg/i.

The applicability of these growth data from laboratory tests depends on

the available food and required activity in natural situations. Obviously,

these factors will be highly variable depending on duration of exposure,

growth rate, species, habitat, season, and size of fish. However, unless

effects of these variables are examined for the site in question, the labora-

tory results should be used. The attainment of critical size is vital to the

smolting of anadromous salmonids and may be important for all salmonids if

size-related transition to feeding on larger or more diverse food organisms is

an advantage. In the absence of more definitive site—specific, species—

specific growth data, the data summary in Tables 1, 2, and 3 represent the

best estimates of the effects of dissolved oxygen concentration on the

potential growth of salmon-id fish.

D. Reproduction

No studies were found that described the effects of low dissolved oxygen

on the reproduction, fertility, or fecundity of salmonid fish.

E. Early Life Stages

Determining the dissolved oxygen requirements for salmonids, many of

which have embryonic and larval stages that develop while buried in the gravel

of streams and lakes, is complicated by complex relationships between the

dissolved oxygen supplies in the gravel and the overlying water. The dis-

solved oxygen supply of embryos and larvae can be depleted even when the

dissolved oxygen concentration in the overlying body of water is otherwise

acceptable. Intergravel dissolved oxygen is dependent upon the balance

between the combined respiration of gravel-dwelling organisms, from bacteria

8

---

to fish embryos, and the rate of dissolved oxygen supply, which is dependent

upon rates of water percolation and convection, and dissolved oxygen dif-

fusion.

Water flow past salmonid eggs influences the dissolved oxygen supply to

the microenvironment surrounding each egg. Regardless of dissolved oxygen

concentration in the gravel, flow rates below 100 cm/hr directly influence the

oxygen supply in the microenvironment and hence the size at hatch of salmonid

fish. At dissolved oxygen levels below 6 mg/i the time from fertilization to

hatch is longer as water flow decreases (Silver et al., 1963; Shumway et a.,

1964).

-

The dissolved oxygen requirements for growth of salmonid embryos and

larvae have not been shown to differ appreciably from those of older sal-

monids. Under conditions of adequate water flow (~100cm/hr), the weight

attained by salmon and trout larvae prior to feeding (swimup) is decreased

less than 10 percent by continuous exposure to concentrations down to 3 mg/i

(Brannon, 1965; Chapman and Shumway, 1978). The considerable developmental

delay which occurs at low dissolved oxygen conditions could have survival and

growth implications if the time of emergence from gravel, or first feeding, is

critically related to the presence of specific food organisms, stream flow, or

other factors (Carlson and Siefert, 1974; Siefert and Spoor, 1974). Effects

of low dissolved oxygen on early life stages are probably most significant

during later embryonic development when critical dissolved.oxygen concentra-

tions are highest (Alderdice et a., 1958) and during the first few months

post-hatch when growth rates are usually highest. The latter authors studied

the effects of 7-day exposure of embryos to low dissolved oxygen at various

stages during incubation at otherwise high dissolved oxygen concentrations.

They found no effect of 7-day exposure at concentrations above 2 mg/i (at a

water flow of 85 cm/hr).

Embryos of mountain whitefish suffered severe mortality at a mean

dissolved oxygen concentration of 3.3 mg/i (2.8 mg/l minimum) and some

reduction in survival was noted at 4.6 mg/i (3.8 mg/i minimum); at 4.6 mg/i,

hatching was delayed by 1 to 2 weeks (Sieffert et al., 1974). Delayed

hatching resulted in poorer growth at the end of the test, even at dissolved

oxygen concentrations of 6 mg/i.

Evaluating intergravel dissolved oxygen concentrations is difficult

because of the great spatial and temporal variability produced by differences

in stream flow, bottom topography, and gravel composition. Even within the

same redd, dissolved oxygen concentrations can vary by 5 or 6 mg/i at a given

time (Koski, 1965). Over several months, Koski repeatedly measured the

dissolved oxygen concentrations in over 30 coho salmon redds and the overlying

stream water in three small, forested (unlogged) watersheds. The results of

these measurements indicated that the average intraredd dissolved oxygen

concentration was about 2 mg/i below that of the overlying water. The minimum

concentrations measured in the redds averaged about 3 mg/i below those of the

overlying water and probably occurred during the latter period of intergravel

development when water temperatures were warmer, larvae larger, and overlying

dissolved oxygen concentrations lower.

9

---

Coble (1961) buried steelhead trout eggs in streambed gravel, monitored

nearby intergravel dissolved oxygen and water velocity, and noted embryo

survival. There was a positive correlation between dissolved oxygen concen-

tration, water velocity, and embryo survival. Survival ranged from 16 to 26

percent whenever mean intergravel dissolved oxygen concentrations were below 6

mg/i or velocities were below 20 cm/hr; at dissolved oxygen concentrations

above 6 mg/l and velocities over 20 cm/hr, survival ranged from 36 to 62

percent. Mean reductions in dissolved oxygen concentration between stream and

intergravel waters averaged about 5 mg/i as compared to the 2 mg/i average

reduction observed by Koski (1965) in the same stream. One explanation for

the different results is that the intergravel water flow may have been higher

in the natural redds studied by Koski (not determined) than in the artificial

redds of Coble’s investigation. Also, the density of eggs near the sampling

point may have been greater in Coble’s simulated redds.

A study of dissolved oxygen concentrations in brook trout redds was

conducted in Pennsylvania (Hoilander, 1981). Brook trout generally prefer

areas of groundwater upwelling for spawning sites (Witzel and MacCrimmon,

1983). Dissolved oxygen and temperature data offer no indication of ground-

water flow in Holiender’s study areas, however, so that differences between

water column and intergravel dissolved oxygen concentrations probably repre-

sent intergravel dissolved oxygen depletion. Mean dissolved oxygen concentra-

tions in redds averaged 2.1, 2.8, and 3.7 mg/liter less than the surface water

in the three portions of the study. Considerable variation of intergravel

dissolved oxygen concentration was observed between redds and within a single

redd. Variation from one year to another suggested that dissolved oxygen

concentrations will show greater intergravei depletion during years of low

water flow.

Until more data are available, the dissolved oxygen concentration in the

intergravel environment should be considered to be at least 3 mg/i lower than

the oxygen concentration in the overlying water. The 3 mg/i differential is

assumed in the criteria, since it reasonably represents the only two available

studies based on observations in natural redds (Koski, 1965; Holiender, 1981).

When siltation loads are high, such as in logged or agricultural watersheds,

lower water velocity within the gravel could additionally reduce dissolved

oxygen concentrations around the eggs. If either greater or lesser differen-

tials are known or expected, the criteria should be altered accordingly.

F. Behavior

Ability of chinook and coho salmon to detect and avoid abrupt differences

in dissolved oxygen concentrations was demonstrated by Whitmore et al. (1960).

In laboratory troughs, both species showed strong preference for oxygen levels

of 9 mg/i or higher over those near 1.5 mg/i; moderate selection against 3.0

mg/i was common and selection against 4.5 and 6.0 mg/i was sometimes detected.

The response of young Atlantic salmon and brown trout to low dissolved

oxygen depended on their age; larvae were apparently unable to detect and

avoid water of low dissolved oxygen concentration, but fry 6-16 weeks of age

showed a marked avoidance of concentrations up to 4 mg/i (Bishai, 1962).

Older fry (26 weeks of age) showed avoidance of concentrations up to 3 mg/i.

10

---

In a recent study of the rainbow trout sport fishery of Lake Taneycomo,

Missouri, Weithman and Haas (1984) have reported that reductions in minimum

daily dissolved oxygen concentrations below 6 mg/i are related to a decrease

in the harvest rate of rainbow trout from the lake. Their data suggest that

lowering the daily minimum from 6 mg/i to 5, 4, and 3 mg/i reduces the harvest

rate by 20, 40, and 60 percent, respectively. The authors hypothesized that

the reduced catch was a result of reduction in feeding activity. This mechan-

ism of action is consistent with Thatcher’s (1974) observation of lower

activity of coho salmon at 5 mg/i in laboratory growth studies and the finding

of Warren et al. (1973) that growth impairment produced by low dissolved

oxygen appears to be primarily a function of lower food intake.

A three-year study of a fishery on planted rainbow trout was published by

Heimer (1984). This study found that the catch of planted trout increased

during periods of low dissolved oxygen in American Falls reservoir, on the

Snake River in Idaho. The author concluded that the fish avoided areas of low

dissolved oxygen and high temperature and the increased catch rate was a

result of the fish concentrating in areas of more suitable oxygen supply and

temperature.

G.

-

Swimming

Effects of dissolved oxygen ‘concentrations on swimming have been demon-

strated by Davis et a. (1963). In their studies, the maximum sustained

swimming speeds (in the range of 30 to 45 cm/sec) of juvenile coho salmon were

reduced by 8.4, 12.7, and 19.9 percent at dissolved oxygen concentrations of

6, 5, and 4 mg/i, respectively. Over a temperature range from 10 to 20°C,

effects were slightly more severe at cooler temperatures. Jones (1971)

reported 30 and 43 percent reductions of maximal swimming speed of rainbow

trout at dissolved oxygen concentrations of 5.1 (14°C) and 3.8 (22°C) mg/i,

respectively. At lower swimming speeds (2 to 4 cm/sec), coho and chinook

salmon at 20°Cwere generally able to swim for 24 hours at dissolved oxygen

concentrations of 3 mg/i and above (Katz et al., 1958). Thus, the signif-

icance of lower dissolved oxygen concentrations on swimming depends on the

level of swimming performance required for the survival, growth, and reproduc-

tion of salmonids. Failure to escape from predation or to negotiate a swift

portion of a spawning migration route may be considered an indirect lethal

effect and, in this regard, reductions of maximum swimming performance can be

very important. With these exceptions, moderate levels of swimming activity

required by saimonids are apparently little affected by concentrations of

dissolved oxygen that are otherwise acceptable for growth and reproduction.

H. Field Studies

Field studies of salmonid populations are almost non-existent with

respect to effects of dissolved oxygen concentrations. ,Some of the systems

studied by Ellis (1937) contained trout, but of those river systems in which

trout or other salmonids were most likely (Columbia River and Upper Missouri

River) no stations were reported with dissolved oxygen concentrations below 5

mg/i, and 90 percent of the values exceeded 7 mg/i.

11

---

III. Non-Salmonids

The amount of data describing effects of low dissolved oxygen on non-

saimonid fish is more limited than that for salmonids, yet must cover a group

of fish with much greater taxonomic and physiological variability. Salmonid

criteria must provide for the protection and propagation of 38 species in 7

closely related genera; the non-salmon-id criteria must provide for the protec-

tion and propagation of some 600 freshwater species in over 40 diverse

taxonomic families. Consequently, the need for subjective technical judgment

is greater for the non-salmonids.

Many of the recent, most pertinent data have been obtained for ‘several

species of Centrarchidae (sunfish), northern pike, channel catfish, and the

fathead minnow. These data demonstrate that the larval stage is generally the

most sensitive life stage. Lethal effects on larvae have been observed at

dissolved oxygen concentrations that may only slightly affect growth of

juveniles of the same species.

A. Physiology

Several studies of the relationship between low dissolved oxygen concen-

trations and resting oxygen consumption rate constitute the bulk of the

physiological data relating to the effect of hypoxia on nonsalmonid fish. A

reduction in the resting metabolic rate of fish ,is generally believed to

represent a marked decrease in the scope for growth and• activity, a net

decrease in the supply of oxygen to the tissues, and perhaps a partial shift

to anaerobic energy sources. The dissolved oxygen concentration at which

reduction in resting metabolic rate first appears is termed the critical

oxygen concentration.

Studies with brown bullhead (Grigg, 1969), largemouth bass (Cech et al.

1979), and goldfish and carp (Beamish, 1964), produced estimates of critical

dissolved oxygen concentrations for these species. For largemouth bass, the

critical dissolved oxygen concentrations were 2.8 mg/i at 30°C, 2.6 mg/i at

25°C, and 2.3 mg/i at 20°C. For brown bullheads the critical concentration

was about 4 mg/i. Carp displayed critical oxygen concentrations near 3.4 and

2.9 mg/i -at 10 and 20°C,respectively, and goldfish critical concentrations of

dissolved oxygen were about 1.8 and 3.5 mg/i at 10 and 20°C, respectively. A

general summary of these data suggest critical dissolved oxygen concentrations

between 2 and 4 mg/l, with higher temperatures usually causing higher critical

concentrations.

-

Critical evaluation of the data of Beamish (1964) suggest that the first

sign of t-iypoxic stress is not the decrease in oxygen consumption, but rather

an increase, perhaps as a result of metabolic cost of passing an increased

ventilation volume over the gills. These increases were seen in carp at 5.8

mg/i at 20°Cand at 4.2 mg/i at 10°C.

B. Acute Lethal Concentrations

Based on the sparse data base describing acute effects of low dissolved

oxygen concentrations on nonsalmonids, many non—salmonids appear to be

considerably less sensitive than salmonids. Except for larval forms, no

12

---

non-salmonids appear to be more sensitive than saimonids. ‘Spoor (1977)

observed lethality of largemouth bass larvae at a dissolved oxygen concentra-

tion of 2.5 mg/i after only a 3-hr exposure. Generally, adults and juveniles

of all species studied survive for at least a few hours at concentrations of

dissolved oxygen as low as 3 mg/I. In most cases, no mortality results from

acute exposures to 3 mg/i for the 24- to 96-h duration of the acute tests.

Some non-salmonid fish appear to be able to survive a several-day exposure to

concentrations below 1 mg/i (Moss and Scott, 1961; Downing and Merkens, 1957),

but so little is known about the latent effects of such exposure that short—

term survival cannot now be used as an indication of acceptable dissolved

oxygen concentrations. In addition to the unknown latent effects of exposure

to very low dissolved oxygen concentrations, there are no data on the effects

of repeated short-term exposures. Most importantly, data on the tolerance to

low dissolved oxygen concentrations are available for only a few of the

numerous species of non-salmonid fish.

C. Growth

Stewart et al. (1967) conducted several growth studies with juvenile

iargemouth bass and observed reduced growth at 5.9 mg/i and lower concentra-

tions. Five of six experiments included dissolved oxygen concentrations

between 5 and 6 mg/i; dissolved oxygen concentrations of 5.1 and 5.4 mg/i

produced reductions in growth rate of 20 and 14 percent, respectively, but

concentrations of 5.8 and 5.9 mg/i had essentially no effect on growth. The

efficiency of food conversion was not reduced until dissolved oxygen concen-

trations were much lower, indicating that decreased food consumption was the

primary cause of reduced growth.

When channel catfish fingerlings held at 8, 5, and 3 mg/i were fed as

much as they could eat in three daily feedings, there were significant

reductions in feeding

arid weight gain

(22 percent) after a 6 week exposure to

5 mg/i (Andrews et al., 1973). At a lower feeding rate, growth after 14 weeks

was reduced only at 3 mg/i. Fish exposed to 3 mg/i swam lethargically, fed

poorly and had reduced response to loud noises. Raible (1975) exposed channel

catfish to several dissolved oxygen concentrations for up to 177 days and

observed a graded reduction in growth at each concentration below 6 mg/i.

However, the growth pattern for 6.8 mg/i was comparable to that at 5.4 mg/i.

He concluded that each mg/i increase in dissolved oxygen concentrations

between 3 and 6 mg/i increased growth by 10 to 13 percent.

Carlson et al. (1980) studied the effect of dissolved oxygen concentra-

tion on the growth of juvenile channel catfish and yellow perch. Over periods

of about 10 weeks, weight gain of channel catfish was lower than that of

control fish by 14, 39, and 54 percent at dissolved oxygen concentrations of

5.0, 3.4, and 2.1 mg/i, respectively. These differences were produced by

decreases

,

in growth rate of 5, 18, and 23 percent (JRB Associates, 1984),

pointing out the importance of differentiating between effects on weight gain

and effects~ on growth rate. When of sufficient duration, small reductions in

growth rate can have large effects on relative weight gain. Conversely, large

effects on growth rate may have little effect on annual weight gain if they

occur only over a small proportion of the annual growth period. Yellow perch

appeared to be more tolerant to low dissolved oxygen concentrations, with

reductions in weight gain of 2, 4, and 30 percent at dissolved oxygen concen-

trations of 4.9, 3.5, and 2.1 mg/i, respectively.

13

---

120

i ±I i ii

D

0

Largemouth Bass

C)

C.)

U

‘

0

Black -Crappie

A

s~

White Sucker

•

V

White Bass

—

• Northern Pike

~

20

U

U Channel Catfish

-

A

Walleye

S

VSmallmouth Bass

(I)

0_~,g~~I~l

I I I I III

2

3

4 5678910

Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L)

Figure 1. Effect of continuous exposure to various mean dissolved oxygen

concentrations on survival of embryonic and larval stages of eight

species of nonsalmonid fish. Minima recorded in these tests

averaged about 0.3 mg/i below the mean concentrations.

14-

---

-

The data of Stewart et al. (1967), Carison et a. (1980), and Adelman and

Smith (1972) were analyzed -to determine the relationship between growth rate

and dissolved oxygen concentration (JRB Associates, 1984). Yellow perch

appeared to be very resistant to influences of low dissolved oxygen concentra-

tions, northern pike may be about as sensitive as salmonids, while largemouth

bass and channel catfish are intermediate in their response (Table 4). The

growth rate relations modeled from Adelman and Smith are based on only four

data points, with none in the critical dissolved oxygen region from 3 to.5

rng/l. Nevertheless, these growth data for northern pike are the best avail-

able for nonsalmonid coidwater fish. Adelman and Smith observed about a 65

percent reduction in growth of juvenile northern pike after 6-7 weeks at

dissolved oxygen concentrations of 1.7 and 2.6 mg/i. At the next higher

concentration (5.4 mg/i), growth was reduced 5 percent.

Table 4. Percent reduction in growth rate of some nonsaimonid fish held at

various dissolved oxygen concentrations expressed as the median

value from n tests with each species (calculated from JRB

Associates, 1984).

Dissolved

Oxygen

(mg/i)

Species (number of tests)

Northern

Pike (1)

,

Largemouth

Bass (6)

Channel

Catfish (1),

Yellow

Perch (1)

900

0

0

810

0

0

740

1

0

690

3

0

5

16

1

7

0

4

25

9

13

0

3

35

17

20

7

2

--

51

29

22

Median

Temp (°C)

19

26

25

20

Brake (1972) conducted a series of studies on juvenile largemouth bass in

two artificial ponds to determine the effect of reduced dissolved oxygen

concentration on consumption of mosquitofish and growth during 10 2-week

exposures. The dissolved oxygen in the control pond was maintained near

air-saturation (8.3 to 10.4 mg/i) and the other pond contained mean dissolved

oxygen concentrations from 4.0 to 6.0 mg/i depending upon the individual test.

The temperature, held near the same level in both ponds for each test, ranged

from 13 to 27°C. Food consumption and growth rates of the juvenile bass,

maintained ‘on moderate densities of forage fish, increased with temperature

and decreased at the reduced dissolved oxygen concentrations except at 13°C.

Exposure to that temperature probably slowed metabolic processes of the bass

so much that their total metabolic rates were not limited by dissolved oxygen

except at very low concentrations. These largemouth bass studies clearly

support the idea that higher temperatures exacerbate the adverse effects of

15

---

low dissolved oxygen on the growth rate of fish (Table 5). Comparisons of

Brake’s pond studies with the laboratory growth studies of Stewart et a.

(1967) suggest that laboratory growth studies may significantly underestimate

the adverse effect of low dissolved oxygen on fish growth. Stewart’s six

studies with largemouth bass are summarized in Table 4 and Brake’s data are

presented in Table 5. All of Stewart’s tests were conducted at 26°C,about

the highest temperature in Brake’s studies, but comparison of the data show

convincingly that at dissolved oxygen concentrations between 4 and 6 mg/i the

growth rate of bass in ponds was reduced 17 to 34 percent rather than the 1 to

9 percent seen in the laboratory studies. These results suggest that the ease

of food capture in laboratory studies may result in underestimating effects of

low dissolved oxygen on growth rates in nature.

Table 5. Effect of temperature on the percent reduction in growth rate of

largemouth bass exposed to various dissolved oxygen concentrations

in ponds (after Brake, 1972; JRB Associates, 1984).

Temperature

(°C)

Percent Reduction in Growth Rate at

4.2 ±0.2 mg/i

4.9 ±0.2

mg/i

5.8 ±0.2 mg/i

13.3

0

--

13.6

--

--

‘

,

7

16.3

--

18

--

16.7

--

--

15

18.1

--

19

--

18.6

--

34

--

18.7

18

--

—-

23.3

26

--

--

26.7

--

--

17

27.4

31

--

‘

Brett and Blackburn (1981) reanalyzed the growth data previously pub-

lished by other authors for largemouth bass, carp, and coho salmon in addition

to their own results for young coho and sockeye salmon. They concluded for

all species that above a critical

level ranging from 4.0 to 4.5

mg/l,

decreases in growth rate and food conversion

efficiency were not statistically

significant in these tests of relatively short duration (6 to 8

weeks) under

the pristine conditions of laboratory testing.

EPA believes that a more

accurate estimate of the dissolved oxygen concentrations that have no effect

on growth and a

better estimate of concent~ation:effect relationships can be

obtained by curve-fitting procedures (JCB Associates, 1984) and by examining

these results from a large number of studies. Brett and Blackburn added an

additional qualifying statement that it was not the purpose of their study to

seek evidence on the acceptable level of dissolved oxygen in nature because of

the problems of environmental complexity involving all life stages and

functions, the necessary levels of activity to survive in a competitive world,

and the interaction of water quality (or lack of it) with varying dissolved

16

---

oxygen concentrations. Their cautious concern regarding the extrapolation to

the real world of results obtained under laboratory conditions is consistent

with that of numerous investigators.

D. Reproduction

-

A life-cycle exposure of the fathead minnow beginning with 1- to 2-month

old juveniles was conducted and effects of continuous low dissolved oxygen

concentrations on various life stages indicated that the most sensitive stage

was the larval stage (Brungs, 1971). No spawning occurred at 1 mg/i, and the

number of eggs produced per female was reduced at 2 mg/i but not at higher

concentrations. Where spawning occurred, the percentage hatch of embryos

(81-89 percent) was not affected when the embryos were exposed to the same

concentrations as their parents. Hatching time varied with temperature, which

was not controlled, but with decreasing dissolved oxygen concentration the

average incubation time increased gradually from the normal 5 to nearly 8

days. Mean larval survival was 6 percent at 3 mg/i and 25 percent at 4 mg/i.

Mean survival of larvae at 5 mg/l was 66 percent as compared to 50 percent at

control dissolved oxygen concentrations. However, mean growth of surviving

larvae at 5 mg/l was about 20 percent lower than control larval growth.

Siefert and Herman (1977) exposed mature black crappies to constant dissolved

oxygen concentrations from 2.5 mg/i to saturation and temperatures of 13-20°C.

Number of spawnings, embryo viability, hatching success, and survival through

swim-up were similar at all exposures.

E. Early Life Stages

Larval and juvenile non-saimonids are frequently more sensitive to

exposures to low dissolved oxygen than are other life stages. Peterka and

Kent (1976) conducted semi-controlled experiments at natural spawning sites of

northern pike, bluegill, pumpkinseed, and smallmouth bass in Minnesota.

Dissolved oxygen concentrations were measured 1 and 10 cm from the bottom,

with observations being made on hatching success and survival of embryos, sac

larvae, and, in some instances, larvae. Controlled exposure for up to 8 hours

was performed in situ in small chambers with the dissolved oxygen controlled

by nitrogen stripping. For all species tested, tolerance to short-term

exposure •to low concentrations decreased from embryonic to larval stages.

Eight-hour exposure of embryos and larvae’of northern pike to dissolved oxygen

concentrations caused no mortality of embryos at 0.6 mg/i but was 100 percent

lethal to sac-larvae and larvae. The most sensitive stage, the larval stage,

suffered complete mortality following 8 hours at 1.6 mg/i; the next higher

concentration, 4 mg/i, produced no mortality. Smailmouth bass were at least

as sensitive, with nearly complete mortality of sac-larvae resulting from

6-hour exposure to 2.2 mg/i, but no mortality occurred after exposure to 4.2

mg/i. Early life stages of bluegill were more hardy, with embryos tolerating

4-hour exposure to 0.5 mg/i, a concentration lethal to sac—larvae; sac-larvae

survived similar exposure to 1.8 mg/i, however. Because the most sensitive

stage of northern pike was the later larval stage, and because the younger

sac-larval stages of smallmouth bass and bluegill were the oldest stages

tested, the tests with these latter species may not have included the most

sensitive stage. Based on these tests, 4 mg/i is tolerated, at least briefly,

by northern pike and may be tolerated by smallmouth bass, but concentrations

as high as 2.2 mg/i are lethal.

17

---

Several studies have provided evidence of mortality or other significant

damage to young non-salmonids as a result of a few weeks exposure to dissolved

oxygen concentrations in the 3 to 6 mg/i range. Siefert et ai. (1973) exposed

-

larval northern pike to various dissolved oxygen concentrations at 15 and 19°C

and observed reduced survival at concentrations as high as 2.9 and 3.4 mg/l.

Most of the mortality at these concentrations occurred at the time the larvae

-

initiated feeding. Apparently the added stress of activity at that time or a

greater oxygen requirement for that life stage was the determining factor.

There was a marked decrease in growth at concentrations below 3 mg/i. In-a

similar study lasting 20 days, survival of walieye embryos and larvae was

reduced at 3.4 mg/i (Siefert and Spoor, 1974), and none survived at lower

concentrations. A 20 percent

reduction in the survival of srnalimouth bass

embryos and larvae occurred at a concentration of 4.4 mg/i (Siefert et al.,

1974) and at 2.5 mg/i all larvae died in the first 5 days after hatching. At

4.4 mg/i hatching occurred earlier than in the controls and growth among

survivors was reduced. Carlson and Siefert (1974) concluded that concentra-

tions from 1.7 to 6.3 mg/i reduced the growth of early stages of the large-

mouth bass by 10 to 20 percent. At concentrations as high as 4.5 mg/i,

hatching was premature and feeding was delayed; both factors could indirectly

influence survival, especially if other stresses were to occur simultaneously.

Carlson et a. (1974) also observed that embryos and larvae of channel catfish

are sensitive to low dissolved oxygen during 2— or 3-week exposures. Survival

at 25°Cwas slightly reduced at 5 mg/i and significantly reduced at 4.2 mg/l.

At 28°C survival was slightly reduced at 3.8, 4.6, and 5.4 mg/i; total

mortality occurred at 2.3 mg/l. At all reduced dissolved oxygen concentra-

tions at both temperatures, embryo pigmentation was lighter, incubation period

was extended, feeding was delayed, and growth was reduced. No effect of

dissolved oxygen concentrations as low as 2.5 mg/i was seen on survival of

embryonic and larval black crappie (Sieffert and Herman, 1977). Other

tolerant species are the white bass and the white sucker, both of which

evidenced adverse effect to embryo larva exposure only at dissolved oxygen

concentrations of 1.8 and 1.2 mg/i, respectively (Sieffert et al., 1974;

Sieffert and Spoor, 1974).

Data (Figure 1) on the effects of dissolved oxygen on the survival of

embryonic and larval •nonsalmonid fish show some species to be tolerant

(largemouth bass, white sucker, black crappie, and white bass) and others

nontoierant (channel catfish, waiieye, northern pike, smailmouth bass). The

latter three species are often included with salmonids in a grouping of

sensitive coidwater fish; these data tend to support that placement.

F. Behavior

Largemouth bass in laboratory studies (Whitmore et al., 1960) showed a

slight tendency to avoid concentrations of dissolved oxygen of 3.0 and 4.6

mg/l and a definite avoidance of 1.5 mg/i. Bluegills avoided a concentration

of 1.5 mg/i but not higher concentrations. The environmental significance of

such a response is unknown, but if large areas are deficient in dissolved

oxygen this avoidance would probably not greatly enhance survival. Spoor

(1977) exposed largemouth bass embryos and larvae to low dissolved oxygen for

brief exposures of afew hours. At 23 to 24°Cand 4 to 5 mg/i, the normally

quiescent, bottom-dwelling yolk-sac larvae became very active and swam

18

---

vertically to a few inches above the substrate. Such behavior in natural

systems would probably cause significant losses due to predation and simple

displacement from the nesting area.

G. Swimming

Effects of low dissolved oxygen on the swimming performance of largemouth

bass were studied by Katz et al. (1959) and Dahlberg et a. (1968). The

results in the former study were highly dependent upon season and temperature,

with summer tests at 25°Cfinding no effect on continuous swimming for 24 hrs

at 0.8 ft/sec unless dissolved oxygen concentrations fell below 2 mg/i. In

the fall, at 20°C,no fish were able to swim for a day at 2.8 mg/i, and in the

winter and 16° no fish swam for 24 hours at 5 mg/i. These results are

consistent with those seen in saimonids in that swimming performance appears

to be more sensitive to low dissolved oxygen at lower temperatures.

Dahlberg et ai. (1968) looked at the effect of dissolved oxygen on

maximum swimming speed at temperatures near 25°C. They reported slight

effects (less than 10 reduction in maximum swimming speed) at concentrations

between 3 and 4.5 mg/i, moderate reduction (16-20) between 2 and 3 mg/i and

severe reduction (30-50) at 1 to 1.5 mg/i.

H. Field Studies

Ellis (1937) reported results of field studies conducted at 982 stations

on freshwater streams and rivers during the months of June through September,

1930-1935. During this time, numerous determinations of dissolved oxygen

concentrations were made. He concluded that 5 mg/i appeared to be the lowest

concentration which may reasonably be expected to maintain varied warmwater

fish species in good condition in inland streams. Ellis (1944) restated his

earlier conclusion and also added that his study had included the measurement

of dissolved oxygen concentrations at night and various seasons. He did not

specify the frequency or proportion of diurnal or seasonal sampling, but the

mean number of samples over the 5-year study was about seven samples per

stati on.

Brinley (1944) discussed a 2-year biological’ survey of the Ohio River

Basin. He concluded that in the zone where dissolved oxygen is between 3 and

5 mg/i the fish are more abundant than at lower concentrations, but show a

tendency to sickness, deformity, and parasitization. The field results show

that the concentration of 5 mg/i seems to represent a general dividing line

between good and bad conditions for fish.

A three—year study of fish populations in the Wisconsin River indicated

that sport fish (percids and centrarchids) constituted a significantly greater

proportion of the fish population at sites Shaving mean summer dissolved oxygen

concentrations greater than 5 mg/i than at sites averaging below 5 mg/i

(Coble, 1982).

The differences could not be related to any observed habitat

variables other than dissolved oxygen concentration.

These three field studies all indicate that increases in dissolved oxygen

concentrations above 5 mg/i do not produce noteworthy improvements in the

composition, abundance, or condition of non-saimonid fish populations, but

19

---

that sites with dissolved oxygen concentrations below 5 mg/i have fish

assemblages with increasingly poorer population characteristics as the

dissolved oxygen concentrations become lower. It cannot be stressed too

strongly that these field studies lack definition with respect to the actual

exposure conditions experienced by the resident populations and the lack of

good estimates for mean and minimum exposure concentrations Over various

periods precludes the establishment of numerical criteria based on these

studies. The results of these semi—quantitative field studies are consistent

with the criteria derived later in this document.

IV. Invertebrates

As stated earlier, there is a general paucity of information on the

tolerance of the many forms of freshwater invertebrates to low dissolved

oxygen. Most available data describe the relationship between oxygen concen-

tration and oxygen consumption or short-term survival of aquatic larvae of

insects. These data are further restricted by their emphasis on species

representative of relatively fast-fl-owing mountain streams.

One rather startling feature of these data is the apparently -high

dissolved oxygen requirement for the survival of some species. Before

extrapolating from these data one should be cautious in evaluating the

respiratory mode(s) of the species, its natural environment, and the test

environment. Thus, many nongilled species respire over their. entire body

surface while many other species are gilled. Either form is dependent upon

the gradient of oxygen across the respiratory surface, a gradient at least

partially dependent upon the rate of replacement of the water immediately

surrounding the organism. Some insects, such as some members of the mayfly

genus, Baetis, are found on rocks in extremely swift currents; testing their

tolerance to low dissolved oxygen in iaboratory apparatus at slower flow rats

may contribute to their inability to survive at high dissolved oxygen concen-

trations. In addition, species of insects that utilize gaseous oxygen, either

from bubbles or surface atmosphere, may not be reasonably tested for tolerance

of hypoxia if their source of gaseous oxygen is deprived in the laboratory

tests.

In Spite of, these potential problems, the dissolved oxygen requirements

for the survival of many species of aquatic insects are almost certainly

greater than those of most fish species. Early indication of the high

dissolved oxygen requirements of some aquatic insects appeared in the research

of Fox et a. (1937) who reported critical dissolved oxygen concentrations for

mayfiy nymphs in a static test system. Critical concentrations for six

species ranged from 2.2 mg/i to 17 mg/l; three of the species had critical

concentrations in excess of air saturation. These data suggest possible

extreme sensitivity of some species and also the probability of unrealistic

conditions of water flow. More recent studies in water flowing at 10 cm/sec

indicate critical dissolved oxygen concentrations for four species of stonefly

are between 7.3 and 4.8 mg/i (Benedetto, 1970).

In a recent study of 22 species of aquatic insects, Jacob et al. (1984)

reported 2-5 hour LC5O values at unspecified “low to moderate” flows in a

stirred exposure chamber, but apparently with no flow of replacement water.

Tests were run at one or more of five temperatures from 12 to 30°C;some

20

-

---

species were tested at only one temperature, others at as many as four. The

median of the 22 species mean LC5Os was about 3 mg/l, with eight species

having an average LC5O below 1 mg/i and four in excess of 7 mg/i. The four

most sensitive species were two mayfly species and two caddisfly species. The

studies of Fox et a. (1937), Benedetto (1970), and Jacob et al. (1984) were

all conducted with European species, but probably have general relevance -to

North American habitats. A similar oxygen consumption study of a North

American stonefly (Kapoor and Griffiths, 1975) indicated a possible critical

dissolved oxygen concentration of about 7 mg/i at a flow rate of 0.32 cm/sec

and a temperature of 20°C.

One type of behavioral observation provides evidence of hypoxic stress in

-

aquatic insects. As dissolved oxygen concentrations decrease, many species of

aquatic insects can be seen to increase their respiratory movements, movements

that provide for increased water flow over the respiratory surfaces. Fox and

Sidney (1953) reported caddisfiy respiratory movements over a range of

dissolved oxygen from 9 to 1 mg/i. A dissolved oxygen decrease to 5 mg/i

doubled the number of movements and at 1 to 2 mg/i the increase was 3- to

4-fold.

-

Similar

data were published by Knight and Gaufin (1963) who studied a

stonefly common in the western United States. Significant increases occurred

-

below 5 mg/i at 16°Cand below 2 mg/i at 10°C. Increases in movements

occurred at higher dissolved oxygen concentrations when water flow was 1.5

cm/sec than 7.6 cm/sec, again indicating the importance o’f water flow rate on

the respiration of aquatic insects. A subsequent paper by Knight and Gaufin

(1965) indicated that species of stonefly lacking gills are more sensitive to

low dissolved oxygen than are gilled forms.

Two studies that provide the preponderance of the current data on the

acute effects of low dissolved oxygen concentrations on aquatic insects are

those of Gaufin (1973) and Nebeker (1972) which together provide reasonable

96-hr LC5O dissolved oxygen concentrations for 26 species of aquatic insects

(Table 6). The two studies contain variables that make them difficult to

compare or evaluate fully. Test temperatures~were 6.4°Cin Gauf in’s study and

18.5°C in Nebeker’s. Gaufin used a vacuum degasser while Nebeker used a

30-foot stripping column that probably produced an unknown degree of super-

saturation with nitrogen. The water velocity is not given in either paper,

although flow rates are given but test chamber dimensions are not clearly

specified. The overall similarity of the test results suggests that potential

supersaturation and iower flow volume in Nebeker’s tests did not have a

significant effect on the results.

Because half of the insect species tested had 96-h LCSO dissolved oxygen

concentrations between 3 and 4 mg/i it,appears that these species (collected

in Montana and Minnesota) would require at least 4 mg/i dissolved oxygen to

ensure their survival. The two most sensitive species represent surprisingly

diverse habitats, Ephemerelia doddsi is found in swift rocky streams and has

an LC5O of 5.2 mg/i while the pond mayfly, Callibaetis montanus, has an LC5O

of 4.4 mg/i. It is possible that the test conditions represented too slow a

flow for E. doddsi and too stressful flow conditions for C. montanus.

21

---

Table 6. Acutely lethal concentrations of dissolved oxygen to aquatic

insects.

-

-

Species

96-h LC5O

(mg/i)

Source*

Stonef~y

Acroneuria

pacifica

1.6 (H)**

-

G

-

Acroneuria lycorias

3.6

N

Acrynopté~yxaurea

3.3 (H)

G

Arcynopteryx parallela

Diura knowitoni

2 (H)

3.6 (1)

‘

~

G

G

Nemoura cinctipes

3.3 (H)

G

Pteronarcys californica

3.9 (L)

G

Pteronarcys caiifornica

3.2 (H)

G

Pteronarcys dorsata

2.2

N

Pteronarcelia badia

Mayfly

2.4 (H)

.

G

Baetisca laurentina

3.5

N

Caliibaetjs mo~tanus

4.4 (L)

G

Ephemerelia doddsi

5.2 (L)

G

Ephemerella grandis

3.0 (H)

G

~phemereilasubvaria

3.9

.

N

Hexagenia limbata

1.8 (H)

G

Hexagenia limbata

1.4

N

LeptophTébia nebulosa

2.2

N

Caddi sfly

Brachycentrus occidentalis

2 (L)

1.8 (H)

G

Drusinus sp.

G

f~ydropsychesp.

3.6 (L)

G

~!ydropsychebetteri

2.9(21°C)

N

Hydropsyche betteri

2.6 (18.5°C)

N

Hydropsyche betteri

2.3 (17°C)

N

f~ydropsychebetteri

1.0 (10°C)

N

•

Lepidostoma sp.

3 (H)

G

Limnophilus ornatus

3.4 (L)

G

Neophylax sp.

3.8 (L)

G

Neothremma alicia

1.7 (L)

G

~jp~era

Simulium vittatum

3.2 (1)

G

Tanytarsus dissimilis

0.6

N

*

G

=

Gaufin (1973) —-

all tests at 6.4°C.

N

=

Nebeker (1972)

-- all tests at

18.5°Cexcept as noted/flow 125

mi/mm.

~ H

=

high flow (1000 mi/mm); L

=

low flow (500 mi/mm).

22

---

Other freshwater invertebrates have been subjected to acute hypoxic

stress and their LC5O values determined. Gaufin (1973) reported a 96—h LC5O

for the amphipod Gamnmnarus iimnaeus of 3 mg/i. Four other crustaceans were

studied by Sprague (1963) who reported the following 24-h LC5Os: 0.03 mg/i,

Aseilus intermedius 0.7 mg/i, fjyaleila azteca 2.2 mg/i, Gammarus ~eudo-

iimnaeus and 4.3 mg/i, Gammarus fasciatus. The range of acute sensitivitTés

of these species appears similar to that reported for aquatic insects.

There are few long-term studies of freshwater invertebrate tolerance to

low dissolved oxygen concentrations. Both Gaufin (1973) and Nebeker (1972)

conducted long-term survival studies with insects, but both are -questioned

because of -starvation and potential nitrogen supersaturation, respectively.

Gaufin’s data for eight Montana species and 17 Utah species suggest- that 4.9

mg/i and 3.3 mg/l, respectively, would provide for 50 percent survival for

from 10 to 92 days. Nebeker lists 30-d LC5O values for five species, four

between 4.4 and 5.0 mg/l and one 0.5 mg/i. Overall, these data indicate

that prolonged exposure to dissolved oxygen concentrations below 5 mg/i would

have deterimentai effects on a large proportion of the aquatic insects common

in areas like Minnesota, Montana, and Utah. Information from other habitat

types and geographic locations would provide a broader picture of invertebrate

dissolved oxygen requirements.

A more classic toxicological protocol was used by Homer and Wailer (1983)

in a study of the effects of low dissolved oxygen on Daphna magna. In a 26-d

chronic exposure test, they reported that 1.8 mg/i significantly reduced

fecundity and 2.7 mg/i caused a 17 percent reduction in final weight of

adults. No effect was seen at 3.7 mg/i.

In summarizing the state of knowledge regarding the relative sensitivity

of fish and invertebrates to low dissolved oxygen, it seems that some species

of insects and other crustaceans are killed at concentrations survived by all

species of fish tested. Thus, while most fish will survive exposure to 3

mg/i, many species of invertebrates are killed by concentrations as high as 4

mg/i. The extreme sensitivity of a few species of aquatic inects may be an

artifact of the testing environment. Those sensitive species common to swift

flowing, coidwater streams may require very high concentrations of dissolved

oxygen. -On the other hand, those stream habitats’are probably among the least

likely to suffer significant dissolved oxygen depletion.

Long-term impacts of hypoxia are less well known for invertebrates than

for fish. Concentrations adequate to avoid impairment of fish production

probably will provide reasonable protection for invertebrates as long as

lethal concentrations are avoided.

V. Other Considerations

A. Effects of Fluctuations

Natural dissolved oxygen concentrations fluctuate on a seasonal and daily

basis, while in most laboratory studies the oxygen levels are held essentially

constant. In two studies on the effects of daily oxygen cycles the authors

concluded that growth of fish fed unrestricted rations was markedly less than

would be estimated from the daily mean dissolved oxygen concentrations

23

---

(Fisher, 1963; Whitworth, 1968). The growth of these fish was only slightly

above that attainable during constant exposure to the minimum concentrations

of the daily cycles. A diurnal dissolved oxygen pulse to 3 mg/i for 8 hours

per day for 9 days, with a concentration of 8.3 mg/i for the remainder of the

time, produced a significant stress pattern in the serum protein fractions of

bluegill and iargemouth bass but not yellow bullhead (Bouck and Bail, 1965).

During periods of low dissolved oxygen the fish lost their natural color,

increased their ventilation rate, and remained very quiet. At these times

food was ignored. Several times, during the low dissolved oxygen concentra-

tion part of the cycle, the fish vomited food which they had eaten as much as

12 hours earlier. After comparable exposure of the rock bass, Bouck (1972)

observed similar results on electrophoretic patterns and feeding behavior.

Stewart et al. (1967) exposed juvenile largemnouth bass to patterns of

diurnally—variable dissolved oxygen concentrations with daily minima near 2

mg/i and daiiy maxima from 4 to 17 mg/i. Growth under any fluctuation pattern

was almost always less than the growth that presumably would have occurred had

the fish been held at a constant concentration equal to the mean concentra-

tion.

• Carison et al. (1980) conducted constant and diurnally fluctuating

exposures with juvenile channel catfish and yellow perch. At mean constant

concentrations of 3.5 mg/i or less, channel catfish consumed less food and

growth was significantly reduced. Growth of this species was not reduced at

fluctuations from about 6.2 to- 3.6 and 4.9 to 2 mg/i, b-ut was significantly

impaired at a fluctuation from about 3.1 to 1 mg/i. Similarly, at mean

constant concentrations near 3.5 mg/i, yellow perch consumed less food but

growth was not impaired until concentrations were near 2 mg/i. Growth was not

affected by fluctuations from about 3.8 to 1.4 mg/i. No dissolved oxygen-

related mortalities were observed. In both the channel catfish and the yellow

perch experiments, growth rates during the tests with fluctuating dissolved

oxygen were considerably below the rate attained in the constant exposure

tests. As a result, the fluctuating and constant exposures could not be

compared. Growth would presumably have been more sensitive in the fluctuating

tests if there had been higher rates of control growth.

MatUre black crappies were exposed to constant and fluctuating dissolved

oxygen concentrations (Carison and Herman, 1978). Constant concentrations

were near 2.5, 4, 5.5, and 7 mg/i and fluctuating concentrations ranged from

0.8 to 1.9 mg/i above and below these original concentrations. Successful

spawning occurred at all exposures except the fluctuation between 1.8 and 4.1

mg/i.

In considering daily or longer-term cyclic exposures to low dissolved

oxygen concentrations, the minimum values may be more important than the mean

levels. The importance of the daily minimum as a determinant of growth rate

is common to the results of Fisher (1963), Stewart (1967), and Whitworth

(1968). S’ince annual low dissolved oxygen concentrations normally occur

during warmer months, the significance of reduced growth rates during the

period in question must be considered. If growth rates are normally low, then

the effects of low dissolved oxygen concentration on growth could be minimal;

if normal growth rates are high, the effects could be significant, especially

if the majority of the annual growth occurs during the period in question.

24

---

B. Temperature and Chemical Stress

When fish were exposed to lethal temperatures, their survival times were

reduced when the dissolved oxygen concentration was lowered from 7.4 to 3.8

mg/i (Alabaster and Welcomme, 1962). Since high temperature and low dissolved

oxygen commonly occur together in natural environments, this likelihood of

additive or synergistic effects of these two potential stresses is a most

important consideration.

-

High temperatures almost certainly increase the adverse effects of low

dissolved oxygen concentrations. However, the spotty, irregular acute

lethality data base provides little basis for quantitative, predictive

analysis. Probably the most complete study is that on rainbow trout, perch,

and roach conducted by Downing and Merkens (1957). Because their study was

spread over an 18-month period, seasonal effects could have influenced the

effects at the various test temperatures. Over a range from approximately 10

to 20°C, the lethal dissolved oxygen concentrations increased by an average

factor of about 2.6, ranging from 1.4 to 4.1 depending on fish species tested

and test duration. The influence of temperature on chronic effects, of low

dissolved oxygen concentrations are not well known, but requirements for

dissolved oxygen probably increase to some degree with increasing temperature.

-This generalization -is supported by analysis of saimon studies reported by

Warren et al. (1973) and the largemouth bass studies of Brake (1972).

Because most laboratory tests are conducted at temperatures near the

mid-range of a species temperature tolerance, criteria based on these test

-

data will tend to be under-protective at higher temperatures and over-

protective at lower temperatures. Concern for this temperature effect was a

consideration in establishing these criteria, especially in the establishing

of those criteria intended to prevent short-term lethal effects.

A detailed discussion and model for evaluating interactions among

temperature, dissolved oxygen, ammonia, fish size, and ration on the resulting

growth of individual fish (Cuenco et al., 1985a,b,c) provides an excellent,

in-depth evaluation of potential effects of dissolved oxygen on fish growth.

Several laboratory studies evaluated the effect of reduced dissolved

oxygen concentrations on the toxicity of various chemicals, some of which

occur commonly in oxygen-demanding wastes. Lloyd (1961) observed that the

toxicity of zinc, lead, copper, and monohydric phenols was increased at

dissolved oxygen concentrations as high as approximately 6.2 mg/i as compared

to 9.1 mg/i. At 3.8 mg/l, the toxic effect of these chemicals was even

greater. The toxicity of ammonia was enhanced by low dissolved oxygen more

than that of other toxicants. Lloyd theorized that the increases in toxicity

of the chemicals were due to increased ventilation at low, dissolved oxygen

concentrations; as a consequence of increased ventilation, more water, and

therefore more toxicant, passes the fish’s gills. Downing and Merkens (1955)

reported that survival times of rainbow trout at lethal ammonia concentrations

increased markedly over a range of dissolved oxygen concentrations from 1.5 to

8.5 mg/i. Ninety-six-hr LC5O values for rainbow trout indicate that ammonia

became more toxic with decreasing dissolved oxygen concentrations from 8.6 to

2.6 mg/i (Thurston et al., 1981). The maximum increase in toxicity was by

about a factor of 2. They also compared ammonia LC5O values at reduced

25

---

dissolved oxygen concentrations after’12, 24, 48, and 72 hrs. The shorter the

time period, the more pronounced the positive relationship between the LC5O

and dissolved oxygen concentration. The authors recommended that dissolved

oxygen standards for the protection of salmonids should reflect background

concentrations of ammonia which may be present and the likelihood of temporary

increases in those concentrations. Adelman and Smith (1972) observed that

decreasing dissolved oxygen concentrations increased the toxicity of hydrogen

sulfide to goldfish. When the goldfish were acclimated to the reduced-

dissolved oxygen concentration before the exposure to hydrogen sulfide began,

mean 96-hr LC5O values were 0.062 and 0.048 mg/i at dissolved oxygen concen-

trations of 6 and 1.5 mg/i, respectively. When there was no prior acclima-

tion, the LC5O values were 0.071 and 0.053 mg/i at the same dissolved oxygen

concentrations. These results demonstrated a less than doubling in -toxicity

of hydrogen sulfide and little difference with regard to prior acclimation to

reduced dissolved oxygen concentrations. Cairns and Scheier (1957) observed

that bluegiiis were less tolerant to zinc, naphthenic acid, and potassium

cyanide at periodic low dissolved oxygen concentrations. Pickering (1968)

reported that an increased mortality of bluegilis exposed to zinc resulted

from the added stress of low dissolved oxygen concentrations. The difference

in mean LC5O vaiues between low (1.8 mg/i) and high (5.6 mg/i) dissolved

oxygen concentrations was a factor of 1.5.

Interactions between other stresses and low dissolved oxygen concentra-

tions can greatly increase mortality of trout larvae. For example, sublethal

concentrations of pentachlorophenol and oxygen combined to produce 100 percent

mortality of trout larvae held at an oxygen concentration of 3 mg/i (Chapman

and Shumway, 1978). The survival of chinook salmon embryos and larvae reared

at marginally high temperatures was reduced by any reduction in dissolved

oxygen, especially at concentrations below 7 mg/i (Eddy, 1972).

In general, the occurrence of toxicants in the water mass, in combination

with low dissolved oxygen concentration, may lead to a potentiation of stress

responses on the part of aquatic organisms (Davis, 1975a,b). Doudoroff and

Shumway (1970) recommended that the disposal of toxic pollutants must be

controlled so that their concentrations would not be -unduly harmful at

prescribed, acceptable concentrations of dissolved oxygen, and these accept-

able dissolved oxygen concentrations should be ‘independent of existing or

highest permitted concentrations of toxic wastes.

-

C. Disease Stress

In a study of 5 years of case records at fish farms, Meyer (1970)

observed that incidence of infection with Aeromonas iiquefasciens (a common

bacterial pathogen of fish) was most prevalent during June, July, and August.

He considered low oxygen stress to be a major factor in outbreaks of Aeromonas

disease during summer months. Haley et al. (1967) concluded that a kill of

American and threadfin shad in the San Joaquin River occurred as a result of

Aeromonas infection the day after the dissolved oxygen was between 1.2 and 2.6

mg/i. In this kill the lethal agent was Aeromonas but the additional stress

of the low dissolved oxygen may have been a significant factor.

26

---

Wedemeyer (1974) reviewed the role of stress as a predisposing factor in

fish diseases and concluded that facultative fish pathogens are continuously

present in most- waters. Disease problems seldom occur, however, unless

environmental quality and the host defense systems of the fish also deter-

iorate. He listed furunculosis, Aeromonad and Pseudomonad hemorrhagic

septicemia, and vibriosis as diseases for which low dissolved oxygen is one

environmental factor predisposing fish to epizootics. He stated that to

optimize fish health, dissolved oxygen concentrations should be 6.9 mg/l or

higher. Snieszko (1974) also stated that outbreaks of diseases are probably

more likely if the occurrence of stress coincides with the presence of

pathogenic microorganisms.

VI. Conclusions

-

-The primary determinant for the criteria is laboratory data describing

effect on growth, with developmental rate and survival included in embryo and

larva production levels. For the purpose of deriving criteria, growth in the

laboratory and production in nature are considered equally sensitive to-low

dissolved oxygen. Fish production in natural communities actually may be

significantly more, or less, sensitive than growth in the laboratory-, which

represents only one simplified facet of production.

The dissolved oxygen criteria are based primarily on data developed in

the laboratory under conditions which are usually artificial in several

important respects. First, they routinely preclude or minimize most environ-

mental stresses and biological interactions that under natural conditions are

iikely to increase, to a variable and unknown extent, the effect of low

dissolved oxygen concentrations. Second, organisms are usually given no

L

opportunity to acclimate to low dissolved oxygen concentrations prior to tests

nor can they avoid the test exposure. Third, food availability is unnatural

because the fish have easy, often unlimited, access to food without signif-

icant energy expenditure for search and capture. Fourth, dissolved oxygen

concentrations are kept nearly constant so that each exposure represents both

a minimum and an average concentration. This circumstance complicates

application of the data to natural systems with fluctuating dissolved oxygen

concentrations.

Considering the latter problem only, if the laboratory data are applied

H-

directly as minimum allowable criteria, the criteria will presumably be higher

than necessary because the mean dissolved oxygen concentration will often be

significantly higher than the criteria. If applied as a mean, the criteria

could allow complete anoxia and total mortality during brief periods of very

low dissolved oxygen or could allow too many consecutive daily minima near the

lethal threshold. If only a minimum or a mean can be given as a general

criterion, the minimum must be chosen because averages are too independent of

the extremes.

Obviously, biological effects of low dissolved oxygen concentrations

depend upon means, minima, the duration and frequency of the minima, and the

period of averaging. In many respects, the effects appear to be independent

of the maxima; for example, including supersaturated dissolved oxygen values

in the average may produce mean dissolved oxygen concentrations that are

misleadingly high and-unrepresentative of the true biological stress of the

dissolved oxygen minima.

-

27

---

Because most experimental exposures have been constant, data on the

effect of exposure to fluctuating dissolved oxygen concentrations is sketchy.

The few fluctuating exposure studies have used regular, repeating daily cycles

of an on-off nature with 8 to 16 hours at low dissolved oxygen and the

remainder of the 24 hr period at intermediate or high dissolved oxygen. This

is an uncharacteristic exposure pattern, since most daiiy dissolved oxygen

cycles are of a sinusoidal curve shape and not a square-wave variety.

The existing data allow a tentative theoretical dosing model for fluctu-

ating dissolved oxygen only as applied to fish growth. The EPA believes that

the data of Stewart et a. (1967) suggest that effects on growth are reason-

ably represented by calculating the mean of the daily cycle using as’ a maximum

value the dissolved oxygen concentration which represents the threshold effect

concentration during continuous exposure tests. For example, with an effect

threshold of 6 mg/i, all values in excess of 6 mg/i should be averaged as

though they were 6 mg/i. Using this procedure, the growth effects appear to

be a reasonable function of the mean, as long as the minimum is not lethal.

-Lethal thresholds are highly dependent upon exposure duration, species, age,

-

life stage, temperature, and a wide variety of other factors. Generally the

threshold is between 1 and 3 mg/i.

A most critical-and poorly documented aspect of a dissolved oxygen cri-

terion is the question of acceptable and unacceptable minima during dissolved

oxygen cycles of varying periodicity. Current ability to predict effects of

exposure to a constant dissolved oxygen level is only fair; the effects of

regular, daily dissolved oxygen cycies can only be poorly estimated; and

predicting the effects of more stochastic patterns of dissolved oxygen

fluctuations requires an ability to integrate constant and cycling effects.

Several general conclusions result from the synthesis of available field

and iaboratory data. Some of these conclusions differ from earlier ones in

the literature, but the recent data discussed in this document have provided

additional detail and perspective.

°

Naturally-occurring dissolved oxygen concentrations may occasionally fall

beiow target criteria levels due to a combination of low flow, high

temperature, and natural oxygen demand. These naturally-occurring’

conditions represent a normal situation in which the productivity of fish

or other aquatic organisms may not be the maximum possible under ideal

circumstances, but which represent the maximum productivity under the

particular set of natural conditions. Under these circumstances the

numerical criteria should be considered unattainable, but naturally—

occurring conditions which fail to meet criteria should not be inter-

preted

as violations of criteria. Although further reductions in dis-

solved oxygen may be inadvisable, effects of any reductions should be

compared to natural ambient conditions and not to ideal conditions.

o

Situations during which attainment of appropriate criteria is most

critical include periods when attainment of high fish growth rates is a

priority, when temperatures approach upper-lethal levels, when pollutants

are present in near-toxic quantities, or when other significant stresses

are suspected.

-

28

---

Reductions in growth rate produced by a given low dissolved oxygen

concentration are probably more severe as temperature increases. Even

during periods when growth rates are normally low, high temperature

stress increases the sensitivity of aquatic organisms to disease and

toxic pollutants, making the attainment of proper dissolved oxygen

criteria particularly important. For these reasons, periods of highest

temperature represent a critical portion of the year with respect to

dissolved oxygen requirements.

o

In salmonid spawning habitats, intergravei dissolved oxygen concentra-

tions are significantly reduced by respiration of fish embryos -and other

organisms. Higher water column concentrations of dissolved oxygen are

required to provide protection of fish embryos and larvae which develop

in the intergravel environment. A 3 mg/i difference is used in the

criteria to account for this factor.

The early life stages, especialiy the larval stage, of non-saimonid fish

are usually most sensitive to reduced dissolved oxygen stress. Delayed

development, reduced larval survival, and reduced larval and post—larval

growth are the observed effects. A separate early life stage criterion

for non-salmonids is established to protect these more sensitive stages

and is to apply from spawning through 30 days after hatching.

Other life stages of- salmonids appear to be somewhat more sensitive than

other life stages of the non-salmonids, but this difference, resulting in,

a 1.0 mg/i difference in the criteria for other life stages, may be due

to a more complete and precise data base for saimonids. Also, this

difference is at least partially due to the colder water temperatures at

which salmonid tests are conducted and the resultant higher dissolved

oxygen concentration in oxygen-saturated control water.

Few appropriate data are available on the effects of reduced dissolved

oxygen on freshwater invertebrates. However, historical concensus states

that, if all life stages of fish are protected, the invertebrate commu-

nities, although not necessarily unchanged, should be adequately pro-

tected. This is a generalization to which there may be exceptions of

environmental significance. Acutely lethal concentrations of dissolved

oxygen appear to be higher for many aquatic insects than for fish.

Any dissolved oxygen criteria should include absolute minima to prevent

mortality due to the direct effects of hypoxia, but such minima alone may

not be sufficient protection for the long-term persistence of sensitive

populations under natural conditions. Therefore, the criteria minimum

must also provide reasonable assurance that regularly repeated or

prolonged exposure for days or weeks at the allowable minimum will avoid

significant physiological stress of sensitive organisms.

Several earlier dissolved oxygen criteria were presented in the form of a

family of curves (Doudoroff and Shumway, 1970) or equations (NAS/NAE, 1973)

which yielded various dissolved oxygen requirements depending on the quali-

tative degree of fishery protection or risk deemed suitable at a given site.

Although dissolved oxygen concentrations that risk significant loss of fishery

production are not consistent with the intent of water quality criteria, a

29

---

qualitative protection/risk assessment for a range of dissolved oxygen

concentrations has considerable value to resource managers. Using qualitative

descriptions similar to those presented in earlier criteria of Doudoroff and

Shumway (1970) and Water Quality Criteria 1972 (NAS/NAE, 1973), four levels of

risk are listed below:

No Production Impairment. Representing nearly maximal protection of fishery

resources.

Slight Production Impairment. Representing a high level of protection of

important fishery resources, risking only slight impairment of production

in most cases.

-

Moderate Production Impairment. Protecting the persistence of existing fish

populations but causing considerable loss of production.

Severe Production Impairment. For low level protection of fisheries of some

value but whose protection in comparison with other water uses cannot be

a major objective of pollution control.

• Selection of dissolved oxygen concentrations equivalent to each of these

levels of effect requires some degree of judgment based largely upon examina-

tion of growth and survival data, generalization of response curve shape, and

assumed applicability of laboratory responses to natural populations. Because

nearly all data on the effects of low dissolved oxygen on aquatic organisms

relate to continuous exposure for relatively short duration (hours to weeks),

the resultant dissolved oxygen concentration-biological effect estimates are

most applicable to essentially constant exposure levels, although they may

adequately represent mean concentrations as well.

The production impairment values are necessarily subjective, and the

definitions taken from Doudoroff and Shumway (1970) are more descriptive than

the accompanying terms “slight,” “moderate,” and “severe.” The impairment

values for other life stages are derived predominantly from the growth data

summarized in the text and tables in Sections II and III. In general, slight,

-

moderate, and severe impairment are equivalent to 10, 20, and 40 percent

growth impairment, respectively. Growth impairment of 50 percent or greater

is often accompanied by mortality, and conditions allowing a combination of

severe growth impairment and mortality are considered as no protection.

Production impairment levels for early life stages are quite subjective

and should be viewed as convenient divisions of the range of dissolved oxygen

concentrations between the acute mortality ‘limit and the no production

impairment concentrations.

Production impairment values for invertebrates are based on survival in

both long-term and short-term studies. There are no studies of warmwater

species and few of lacustrine species.

The following is a summary of the dissolved oxygen concentrations (mg/i)

judged to be equivalent to the various qualitative levels of effect described

earlier; the value cited as the acute mortality limit is the minimum dissolved

oxygen concentration deemed not to risk direct mortality of sensitive

organisms:

-

30

---

1. Salmonid Waters

-

a. Embryo and Larval Stage5

o

No Production Impairment

=

11* (8)

°

Siight Production Impairment

9* (6)

o

Moderate Production Impairment B~(5)

o

Severe Production Impairment

=

7* (4)

o

Limit to Avoid Acute Mortality

=

6* (3)

-

(* Note: These are water column concentrations recommended to achieve the

required intergravel dissolved oxygen concentrations shown in

parentheses. The 3 mg/i difference is discussed in the criteria

document.)

b. Other Life Stages

o

No Production Impairment

=

8

°

Slight Production Impairment

6

°

Moderate Production Impairment 5

°

Severe Production Impairment

=

4

°

Limit to Avoid Acute Mortality

=

3

2. Nonsalmonid Waters

a. Early Life Stages

°

No Production Impairment

=

6.5

o

Slight Production Impairment

=

5.5

o

Moderate Production Impairment

=

5

°

Severe Production Impairment

=

4.5

o

Limit to •Avoid Acute Mortality

=

4

b. Other Life Stages

°

No Production Impairment

6

0

Slight Production Impairment

=

5

o

Moderate Production Impairment

4

°

Severe Production Impairment

=

3.5

°

Limit to Avoid Acute Mortality

=

3

3. Invertebrates

o

No Production Impairment

=

8

°

Some Production Impairment

=

5

°

Acute Mortality Limit

=

4

Added Note

Just

prior to final publication of this criteria document, a paper

appeared (Sowden and Power, 1985) that provided an interesting field valida-

tion of the salmonid early life stage criterion and production impairment

estimates. A total of 19 rainbow trout redds were observed for a number of

31

---

parameters including percent survival of embryos, dissolved oxygen concentra-

tion, and calculated intergravel water velocity. The results cannot be

considered a rigorous’ evaluation of the criteria because of the paucity of

dissolved oxygen determinations per redd (2-5) and possible inaccuracies in

determining percent survival and velocity. Nevertheless, the qualitative

validation is striking.

The generalization drawn from Coble’s (1961) study that good survival

occurred when mean intergravel dissolved oxygen concentrations exceeded 6.0

mg/i and velocity exceeded 20 cm/hr was confirmed; 3 of the 19 redds met this

criterion and averaged 29 percent embryo survival. The survival in the other

16 redds averaged only 3.6 percent. The data from the study are summarized in

Table 7. The critical intergravel water velocity from this study appears to

be about 15 cm/hr. Below this velocity even apparently good dissolved oxygen

Table 7. Survival of rainbow trout embryos as a function of intergravel

dissolved oxygen concentration and water velocity (Sowden and Power,

1985) as compared to dissolved oxygen concentrations established as

criteria or estimated as producing various levels of production

-

impairment.

-

Dissolved Oxygen

Concentration

mg/i

Percent

Water

Velocity,

Mean

Survival

(Flow

Criteria Estimates

Mean Minimum

Survival

cm/hr

15 cm/hr)

Exceeded Criteria

8.9

8.0

22..

53.7

-

7.7

7.0

7.0

6.4

6.9

5.4

43.5

1.1

21.3

83.2

9.8

20.6

29.0

Sli~htProduction

7.4

4.1

0.5

7.2

Impairment

7.1

4.3

21.5

16.3

.

6.7

4.5

6.4

4.2

6.0

4.2

4.3

0.3

-

9.6

5.4

7.9

17.4

15.6

Moderate Production 5.8

3.1

13.4

21.6

Impairment

5.3

3.6

5.2

3.9

5.6

0.4

16.8

71.0

6.5

Severe Production

4.6

4.1

0.9

18.3

0.9

Impairment

4.2

3.3

0.0

0.4

Acute Mortality

-

3.9

2.9

3.6

2.1

2.7

1.2

2.4

0.8

2.0

0.8

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

111.4

2.6

4.2

1.1

192.0

-

0.0

32

---

characteristics do not produce reasonable survival. At water velocities in

excess of 15 cm/hr the average percent survival in the redds that had

dissolved oxygen concentrations that met the criteria was 29.0 percent. There

was no survival in redds that had dissolved oxygen minima below the acute

mortality limit. Percent survival in redds with greater than 15 cm/hr flow

averaged 15.6, 6.5, and 0.9 percent for redds meeting slight, moderate, and

severe production impairment levels, respectively.

Based on an average redd of 1000 eggs, these mean percent survivals woUld

be equivalent to 290, 156, 65, 9, and 0 viable larvae entering the environment

to produce food for other fish, catch for fishermen, and eventually a new

generation of spawners to replace the parents of the embryos in the redd.

Whether or not these survival numbers ultimately represent the impairment

definitions is moot in the light of further survival and growth uncertainties,

but the quantitative field results and the qualitative and quantitative

impairment and criteria values are surprisingly similar.

VII. National Criterion

The natioñál criteria for ambient dissolved oxygen concentrations for the

protection of freshwater aquatic life are presented in Table 8. The criteria

are derived from the production impairment estimates on the preceding page

which are in turn based primarily upon growth data and information on tempera-

ture, disease, and pollutant stresses. The average dissolved oxygen concen-

trations selected are values 0.5 mg/i above the slight production impairment

values and represent values between no production impairment and slight

production impairment. Each criterion may thus be viewed as an estimate of

the threshold concentration below which detrimental effects are expected.

Criteria for coldwater fish are intended to apply to waters containing a

population of one or more species in the family Salmonidae (Bailey et a.,

-

1970) or to waters containing other coidwater or coolwater fish deemed by the

user to be closer to salmonids in sensitivity than to most warmwater species.

Although the acute lethal -limit for salmonids is at or below 3 mg/i, the

coldwater minimum has been established at 4 mg/i because a significant

proportion of the insect species common to salmonid habitats are less tolerant

of acute exposures to low dissolved oxygen than are salmonids. Some coolwater

species may require more protection than that afforded by the other life stage

criteria for warmwater fish and it may be desirable to protect sensitive

coolwater species with the coidwater criteria. Many states have more

stringent dissolved oxygen standards for cooler waters, waters that contain

either salmonids, nonsalmonid coolwater fish, or the sensitive centrarchid,

the smalimouth bass. The warmwater criteria are necessary to protect early

life stages of warmwater fish as sensitive as channel catfish and to protect

other life stages of fish as sensitive as largemouth bass. Criteria for early

life stages are intended to apply only where and when these stages occur.

These criteria represent dissolved oxygen concentrations which EPA believes

provide a reasonable and adequate degree of protection for freshwater aquatic

ii fe.

The criteria do not represent assured no-effect levels. However, because

the criteria represent worst case conditions (i.e., for wasteload allocation

and waste treatment plan design), conditions will be better than the criteria

-

33-

---

Tabie 8. Water quality criteria for ambient dissolved oxygen concentration.

Coldwater Criteria

Warmwater Criteria

Early Life

Stages1’2

Other Life

Stages

Early Life

Stages2

Other Life

Stages

30 Day Mean

NA3

6.5

NA

5.5

7 Day Mean

9.5 (6.5)

NA

6.0

NA

7 Day Mean

Minimum

NA

5.0

NA

4.0

-

1 Day Minimum4’5

8.0 (5.0)

4.0

5.0

3.0

1

These are water column concentrations recommended to achieve the required

intergravel dissolved oxygen concentrations shown in parentheses. The 3

mg/i differential is discussed in the criteria document. For species-that

have early life stages exposed directly to the -water column, the figures in

parentheses apply.

2

Includes all embryonic and larval stages and all juvenile forms to 30-days

following hatching.

~ NA (not applicable).

~ For highly manipulatable discharges, further restrictions apply (see page

37)

~ All minima should be considered as instantaneous concentrations to be

achieved at all times.

nearly all the time at most sites. In situations where criteria conditions

are just maintained for considerable periods, the criteria represent some risk

of production impairment. This impairment would probably be slight, but would

depend on innumerable other factors. If slight production impairment or a

small but undefinable risk of moderate production impairment is unacceptable,

then continuous exposure conditions should use the no production impairment

values as means and the slight production impairment values as minima.

The criteria represent annual worst case dissolved oxygen concentrations

believed to protect the more sensitive populations of organisms against

potentially damaging production impairment. The dissolved oxygen concentra-

tions in the criteria are intended to be protective at typically high seasonal

environmental temperatures for the appropriate taxonomic and life stage

classifications, temperatures which are often higher than those used. in the

research from which the criteria were generated, especially for other than

early life stages.

-

34

---

Where natural conditions alone create dissolved oxygen concentrations

less than 110 percent of the applicable criteria means or minima or both, the

minimum acceptable concentration is 90 percent of the natural concentration.

These values are similar to those presented graphically by Doudoroff and

Shumway (1970) and those calculated from Water Quality Criteria 1972 (NAS/NAE,

1973). Absolutely no anthropogenic dissolved oxygen depression in the

potentially lethal area below the 1-day minima should be allowed unless

special care is taken to ascertain the tolerance of resident species to low

dissolved oxygen.

-

-

If daily cycles of dissolved oxygen are essentially sinusoidal, a

reasonable daily average is calculated from the day’s high and low dissolved

oxygen values. A time—weighted average may be required if the dissolved

oxygen cycles are decidedly non-sinusoidal. Determining the magnitude of

daily dissolved oxygen cycles requires

at least two appropriately timed

measurements daily, and characterizing the shape

of the cycle requires several

more appropriately spaced measurements.

Once a series -of daily mean dissolved oxygen concentrations are calcu-

lated, an average of these daily means can be calculated (Table 9).

-

For

embryonic, larval, and early life stages, the averaging period should not

exceed 7 days. This short time is needed to adequately protect these often

Table 9. Sample calculations for determining daily means, and 7—day mean

dissolved oxygen concentrations (30-day averages are calculated in a

similar fashion using 30 days data).

Dissol ved Oxygen (mg/1)

Day

Daily Max.

Daily Mm.

Daily Mean

12

-

10.09.0

3

11.0

4

12~0a

5

10.0

6

11.0

7

120a

7.0

7.0

8.0

8.0

8.0

10.09.0

‘

8.0

8.5

9.5

9.5

-

9.0

10.0

lO.5c

X

57.0

65.0

1-day Minimum

7.0

7-day Mean Minimum

8.1

7—day Mean

-

9.3

a Above air saturation concentration

b example).

(11.0

+

8.0) ÷2.

-

C

(110 +10.0)

÷

2.

(assumed

.

to be 11.0 mg/i--for this

35

---

short duration, most sensitive life stages. Other life stages can probably be

adequately protected by 30-day averages. Regardless of the averaging period,

the average should be considered a moving average rather than a calendar-week

or calendar-month average.

The criteria have been established on the basis that the maximum dis-

solved oxygen value actually used in calculating any daily mean should not

exceed the air saturation value. This consideration is based primarily on

analysis of studies of cycling dissolved oxygen and the growth of largernouth

bass (Stewart et al., 1967), which indicated that high dissolved oxygen levels

( 6 mg/i) had no beneficial effect on growth.

During periodic cycles of dissolved oxygen concentrations, minima lower

than acceptable constant exposure levels are tolerable so long as:

1. the average concentration attained meets or exceeds the criterion;

2. the average dissolved oxygen concentration is calculated as recommended

in Table 9; and

3.

-

the minima are not unduly stressful and clearly are not lethal.

A daily minimum has been included to make certain that no acute mortality

of sensitive species occurs as a result of lack of oxygen. Because repeated

exposure to dissolved oxygen concentrations at or near the acute lethal

threshold will be stressful and because stress can indirectly produce mortal-

ity or other adverse effects (e.g., through disease), the criteria are

designed to prevent significant episodes of

continuous

or regularly recurring

exposures to dissolved oxygen concentrations at or near the lethal threshold.

This protection has been achieved by setting the daily minimum for early life

stages at the subacute lethality threshold, by the use of a 7-day averaging

period for early life stages, by stipulating a 7-day mean minimum value for

other life stages, and by recommending additional limits for manipulatable

di scharges.

The previous EPA criterion for dissolved oxygen published in Quality

Criteria for Water (USEPA, 1976) was a minimum of 5 mg/i (usually applied as a

7Q10) which is similar to the current criterion minimum except for other life

stages of warinwater fish which now allows a 7-day mean minimum of 4 mg/i. The

new criteria are similar to those contained in the 1968 “Green Book” of the

Federal Water Pollution Control Federation (FWPCA, 1968).,

A. The Criteria and Monitoring and Design Conditions

The acceptable mean concentrations should be attained most of the time,

but some deviation below these values would probably not cause significant

harm. Deviations below the mean wiil probably be serially correlated and

hence apt to occur on consecutive days. The significance of deviations below

the mean will depend on whether they occur continuously or in daily cycles,

the former being more adverse than the latter. Current knowledge”regarding

such deviation-s is limited primarily to laboratory growth experiments and by

extrapolation to other activity-related phenomena.

r

•

36.

-

---

Under conditions where large daily cycles of dissolved oxygen occur, it

is possible to meet the criteria mean values and consistently violate the mean

minimum criteria. Under these conditions the mean minimum criteria will

clearly be the limiting regulation unless alternatives such as nutrient

control can dampen the daily cycles.

The significance of conditions which fail to meet the recommended

dissolved oxygen criteria depend largely upon five factors: (1) the duration

of the event; (2) the magnitude of the dissolved oxygen depression; (3) the

frequency of recurrence; (4) the proportional area of the site failing to meet

the criteria; and (5) the biological significance of the site where the event

occurs. Evaluation of an event’s significance must be largely case- and

site—specific. Common sense would dictate that the magnitude of the depres-

sion would be the single most important factor in general, especially if the

acute value is violated. A logical extension of these considerations is that

the event must be considered in the context of the level of resolution of the

monitoring or ‘modeling effort. Evaluating the extent, duration, and magnitude

of an event must be a function of the spatial and temporal frequency of the

data. Thus, a single deviation below the criterion takes on considerably less

significance where continuous monitoring occurs than where sampling is

comprised of once-a-week grab samples. This is so because based on continuous

monitoring the, event is provably small, but with the much less frequent

sampling the event is not provably small and can be considerably worse than

indicated by the sample.

The frequency of recurrence is of considerable interest to those modeling

dissolved oxygen concentratiàns because the return period, or period between

recurrences, is a primary modeling consideration contingent upon probabilities

of receiving water volumes, waste loads, temperatures, etc. It should be

apparent that return period cannot be isolated from the other four factors

discussed above. Ultimately, the question of return period may be decided on

-

a site-specific basis taking into account the other factors (duration,

magnitude, areal extent, and biological significance) mentioned above. Future

studies of temporal patterns of dissolved oxygen concentrations, both within

and between years, must be conducted to provide a better basis for selection

of the appropriate return period.

In conducting waste load allocation and treatment plant design computa-

tions, the choice of temperature in the models will be important. Probably

the best option would be to use temperatures consistent with those expected in

the receiving water over the critical dissolved oxygen period for the biota.

B. The Criteria and Manipulatable Discharges

If daily minimum dissolved oxygen concentrations are perfectly serially

correlated, i.e., if the annual lowest daily minimum dissolved oxygen concen-

tration is adjacent in time to the next lower daily minimum dissolved oxygen

concentration and one of these two minima is adjacent to the third lowest

daily minimum dissolved oxygen concentration, etc., then in order to meet the

7-day mean minimum criterion it is unlikely that there will be more”thah three

or four consecutive daily minimum values below the acceptable 7-day mean

minimum. Unless the dissolved oxygen pattern is extremely erratic, it is also

unlikely that the lowest dissolved oxygen concentration will be appreciably

37

---

S

below the acceptable 7-day mean minimum or that daily minimum values below the

7-day mean minimum will occur in more than one or two weeks each year. For

some discharges, the distribution of dissolved oxygen concentrations can be

manipulated to varying degrees. Applying the daily minimum to manipulatable

-

discharges would allow repeated weekly cycles of minimum acutely acceptable

dissolved oxygen values, a condition of probable stress and possible adverse

biological effect. If risk of protection impairment is to be minimized, the

application of the one day minimum criterion to manipulatable discharges

should either limit the frequency of occurrence of values below the acceptable

7-day mean minimum or impose further limits on the extent of excursions below

the 7-day mean minimum. For such controlled discharges, it is recommended

that the occurrence of daily minima below the acceptable 7-day mean minimum be

limited to 3 weeks per year or that the acceptable one-day minimum be

increased to 4.5 mg/i for coidwater fish and 3.5 mg/l for warmwater fish.

Such decisions could be site-specific based upon the extent of control, serial

correlation, and the resource at risk.

-

38

---

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46

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0)

---

DENNIS STREICHER

City of Elmhurst, Illinois

209 North York Street

Elmhurst, Illinois 60126

630.530.3046

EDUCATION and

CERTIRCATION

B.S. in Biology from Northern Illinois University.

Illinois Class I Sewage Treatment Works Operator

Illinois Class “A” Public Water Supply Operator

WORK

EXPERIENCE

City of Elmhurst, May 1972 to present

1972-1 981

WWTP Chemist

1981-1982

Assistant Superintendent

1982-1990

Superintendent

1991-2000

Assistant Director of Public Works/Water and

Wastewater.

2000-Present

Director of Water & Wastewater

PROFESSIONAL

ACT~VITJES

Member of the A.W.W.A.

Member Water Environment Federation

Member of Central States Water Environment Assoc.

Chairman of the Central States Education Committee

Past president of the Central States Illinois Section

Vice-president of the Illinois Association of Wastewater Agencies

Served as the northeast representative on the Operators

Certification Committee for six years.

AWARDS

2000 Illinois EPA Operator of the Year

1996

CSWEA

Operations Award

INTERESTS

Active in local environmental groups especially bird watching

(bird ing) organizations. Wildlife photography especially birds in

wild habitats. Natural history studies.

---

Exhibit 4

---

April 2, 2004

Mr. Dennis P. McKenna

Deputy Administrator

Illinois Department ofAgriculture

P.O. Box 19281

Springfield, IL 62794-9281

Re: Illinois Association ofWastewater Agencies Dissolved Oxygen Study

Dear Dennis,

As a follow up on our conversation ofApril 1, 2004, I’d like to thank you for your

interest in the Illinois Association WastewaterAgencies (IAWA) dissolved oxygen study.

As you are aware IAWA is very interested in implementing this study and modifying the

Illinois water quality standards as regards to dissolved oxygen. It is our opinion that

many other water quality standards will be enhanced by a scientifically well founded

dissolved oxygen standard in Illinois. We feel the study has followed closelythe USEPA

protocols and builds upon the previous water quality standard. In addition it incorporates

the special features ofthe Illinois warm water chemistry. Note that the study specifically

excludes Lake Michigan and wetlands from consideration for DO limits changes.

The IAWA commissioned this study with the goal ofincorporating a previous study by

Chapman in 1986; then adding new datathat has been developed since that time. The

final draft will then make recommendations to modify Illinois water quality standards for

DO based on natural fluctuations in aquatic systems and physiological tolerances of

native aquatic life. The most significant recommendations are the incorporation ofseven

day nilming averages for the mean and minimum DO concentrations. The mean would be

7-d mean of6.0 mg/L when most early life stages of fish are present and a 7-d mean

minimum of4.0 mgIL when most early life stages offish are absent. This feature alone

adds significantly to the standards as it recognizes the seasonality ofthe natural aquatic

systems in Illinois. The recommended standards are either equivalent to or more

conservative than the previously established national dissolved oxygen standards.

I have transmitted a copy ofthe report to you; we would appreciate your thoughts on the

study. Also, please don’t hesitate to share the study with others in the agricultural

communities to elicit their responses as well. The goal ofTAWA is to include comments

---

ofall interested stakeholders. Further we wish to sure that the concerns of the agricultural

community are answered before the IAWA makes the move to ask the pollution control

board to modify the standards in Illinois.

Once again it was enjoyable speaking with you and if you have any questions don’t

hesitate to give me a call at (630)

530-3046.

Sincerely,

Dennis Streicher

Director ofWater & Wastewater

630.530.3046

office

630.834.0298 fax

Cc:

JAWA DO file

---

June 14, 2004

Ms. Nancy Erickson

Director ofNatural and Environmental Research

Illinois Farm Bureau

1701 Towanda Avenue

Bloomington, IL 61701

Re:

Illinois Association ofWastewater Agencies Dissolved Oxygen Study

IPCB DocketNumber R04-25

Dear Ms. Erickson,

As a follow up to our conversation ofMay

25,

2004, I’d like to thank you for your

interest in the Illinois Association Wastewater Agencies (JAWA) dissolved oxygen study.

Earlier in April of2004 I had transmitted a copy ofthe study to you for comments.

As you are aware IAWA is very interested in implementing this study and modifying the

Illinois water quality standards as regards to dissolved oxygen. It is our opinion that

many other water quality standards will be enhanced by a scientifically well founded

dissolved oxygen standard in Illinois. We feel the study has followed closely the USEPA

protocols and builds upon the previous water quality standard. In addition it incorporates

the special features ofthe Illinois warm water chemistry. Note that the study specifically

excludes Lake Michigan and wetlands from consideration forDO limits changes.

The IAWA commissioned this study with the goal ofincorporating a previous study by

Chapman in 1986; then adding new data that has been developed since that time. The

final draft will then make recommendations to modify Illinois water quality standards for

DO based on natural fluctuations in aquatic systems and physiological tolerances of

native aquatic life. The most significant recommendations are the incorporation ofseven

day running averages for the mean and minimum DO concentrations. The mean would be

7-d mean of6.0 mg!L when most early life stages offish are present and a 7-d mean

minimum of4.0 mg!L when most early life stages of fish are absent. This feature alone

adds significantly to the standards as it recognizes the seasonality ofthe natural aquatic

systems in Illinois. The recommended standards are either equivalent to or more

conservative than the previously established national dissolved oxygen standards.

---

At this time the IAWA has filed a petition with the Illinois Pollution Control Board

(IPCB) to incorporate the studies results into Illinois general use water standards. The

IPCB has agreed to hear the petition and has set dates in June and August to receive

testimony from interested stakeholders. We would appreciate your thoughts on the study.

Also, please don’t hesitate to share the study with others in the agricultural communities

to elicit their responses as well. The goal ofIAWA is to include comments ofall

interested stakeholders.

Once again it was enjoyable speaking with you and if you have any questions don’t

hesitate to give me a call at (630) 530-3046.

Sincerely,

Dennis Streicher

Director ofWater & Wastewater

630.530.3046 office

630.834.0298 fax

Cc:

IAWA DO file

---

April 2, 2004

Alec Messina

IL Environmental Regulatory Group

3150 Roland Avenue

Springfield, IL 62703

Re: Illinois Association ofWastewater Agencies Dissolved Oxygen Study

Dear Alec,

As a follow up on our conversation ofApril 2, 2004, I’d like to thank you for your

interest

in the Illinois Association Wastewater Agencies (IAWA) dissolved oxygen study.

As you are aware IAWA is very interested in implementing this study and modifying the

Illinois water quality standards as regards to dissolved oxygen. It is our opinion that

many other water quality standards will be enhanced by a scientifically well founded

dissolved oxygen standard in Illinois. We feel the study has followed closely the USEPA

protocols and builds upon the previous water quality standard. In addition it incorporates

the special features of the Illinois warm water chemistry. Note that the study specifically

excludes Lake Michigan and wetlands from consideration for DO limits changes.

The IAWA commissioned this study with the goal ofincorporating a previous study by

Chapman in 1986; then adding new data that has been developed since that time. The

final draft will then make recommendations to modify Illinois waterquzditystandards for

DO based on natural fluctuations in aquatic systems and physiological tolerances of

native aquatic life. The most significant recommendations are the incorporation ofseven

day running averages for the mean and minimum DO concentrations. The mean would be

7-d mean of6.0 mg/L when most earlylife stages of fish are present and a 7-d mean

minimum of4.0 mg/L when most early life stages offish are absent. This feature alone

adds significantly to the standards as it recognizes the seasonality ofthe natural aquatic

systems in Illinois. The recommended standards are either equivalent to or more

conservative than the previously established national dissolved oxygen standards.

I have transmitted a copy ofthe report to you; we would appreciate your thoughts on the

study. Also, please don’t hesitate to share the study with others that you represent to elicit

their responses as well. The goal ofIAWA is to include comments of all interested

---

stakeholders. Further we wish to sure that the concerns ofthe industrial discharger

community are answered before the IAWA makes the move to ask the pollution control

board to modify the standards in Illinois.

Once again it was enjoyable speaking with you and if you have any questions don’t

hesitate to give me a call at (630) 530-3046.

Sincerely,

Dennis Streicher

Director of Water & Wastewater

630.530.3046 Office

630.834.0298 fax

Cc:

IAWA DO file

---

April 12, 2004

Dr. Edward Krug

Illinois State Water Survey

2204 Griffith Dr

Champaign, IL 61820

Re: Illinois Association of Wastewater Agencies Dissolved Oxygen Study

Dear Dr. Krug,

As a follow up on our conversation ofApril 12, 2004, I’d like to thank you for your

interest in the Illinois Association WastewaterAgencies (JAWA) dissolved oxygen study.

As you are aware IAWA is very interested in implementing this study and modifying the

Illinois water quality standards as regards to dissolved oxygen. It is our opinion that

many other water quality standards will be enhanced by a scientifically well founded

dissolved oxygen standard in Illinois. We feel the study has followed closely the USEPA

protocols and builds upon the previous water quality standard. In addition it incorporates

the special features ofthe Illinois warm water chemistry. Note that the study specifically

excludes Lake Michigan and wetlands from consideration for DO limits changes.

The IAWA commissioned this study with the goal ofincorporating a previous study by

Chapman in 1986; then adding new datathat has been developed since that time. The

final draft will then make recommendations to modify Illinois water quality standards for

DO based on natural fluctuations in aquatic systems and physiological tolerances of

native aquatic life. The most significant recommendations are the incorporation ofseven

day running averages for the mean and minimum DO concentrations. The mean would be

7-d mean of6.0 mg/L when most early life stages offish are present and a 7-d mean

minimum of 4.0 mg!L when most early life stages offish are absent. This feature alone

adds significantly to the standards as it recognizes the seasonality ofthe natural aquatic

systems in Illinois. The recommended standards are either equivalent to or more

conservative than the previously established national dissolved oxygen standards.

I have transmitted a copy ofthe report to you; we would appreciate your thoughts on the

study. Also, please don’t hesitate to share the study with others that you represent to elicit

their responses as well. The goal ofIAWA is to include comments ofall interested

stakeholders. Further we wish to sure that the concerns ofthe industrial discharger

---

community are answered before the IAWA makes the move to ask the pollution control

board to modify the standards in Illinois.

Once again it was enjoyable speaking with you and if you have any questions don’t

hesitate to give me a call at (630) 530-3046.

Sincerely,

Dennis Streicher

Director ofWater & Wastewater

630.530.3046 Office

630.834.0298 fax

Cc:

IAWA DO file

---

Exhibit 5

---

James E. Garvey 1

Short Curriculum Vita

Name

James E. Garvey

Title

Assistant Professor

Address

Fisheries and Illinois Aquaculture Center

Department ofZoology

Southern Illinois University

—

Carbondale

jgarvey@siu.edu

http://www.science.siu.edu/zoology/garvey/index.html

Degrees

1997 Ph.D., Zoology, The Ohio State University, Ohio

1992 M.S., Zoology, The Ohio State University, Ohio

1990 B.A.,

cum laude,

Zoology, Miami University, Ohio

Experience

2000-

Assistant Professor, Department ofZoology, Southern Illinois

University

1998-2000 Assistant Professor, Division ofBiology, Kansas State University

1997-1998 Postdoctoral Fellow, Department ofBiology, Queen=s University,

Ontario

1997

Research Associate, Department ofZoology, The Ohio State

University

1996-1997 Presidential Fellow, Graduate School, The Ohio State University

1990-1996 Graduate Research Associate, Department ofZoology, The Ohio

State University

1990-1996 Graduate Teaching Associate, Department ofZoology, The Ohio

State University

1988-1990 Research Technician, Department ofZoology, Miami University

1988

Student Researcher, School for Field Studies, St. John, U.S. Virgin

Islands

Fields ofResearch Competence

Aquatic ecology, fish ecology, basic and applied fish biology, limnology,iood

web dynamics, bioenergetics, life history modeling

Honors and Awards

2001 Best Oral Presentation, Annual Meeting ofthe Illinois Chapter of the

American Fisheries Society, February 2001

2000 Best Oral Presentation, 2000 Annual Meeting ofthe Kansas Chapter ofthe

American Fisheries Society, Manhattan, Kansas

1999 Article titled ACompetition between larval fishes in reservoirs: the role of

Revised 2-Jun-04

---

James E. Garv~y 2

relative timing of appearance@ (co-author, R.A. Stein) was among

5

nominated by a selection committee for Best Paper in Transactions of the

American Fisheries Society (out of —100 articles)

1999 American Society ofLimnology and Oceanography=s DIALOG III

Symposium, Bermuda, October 1999

1998 Graduate Faculty Status, Kansas State University, November 1998

1996 Best Poster, Annual Meeting ofthe American Fisheries Society, Dearborn,

Michigan, August 1996

1996 University Presidential Fellowship, July 1996

1995

Honorable Mention, Best Oral Presentation, Annual Meeting of the

American Fisheries Society, Tampa, Florida, August 1995

Student Awards

2004 Dean Sherman, Honorable Mention, Best Poster Award, Undergraduate

Research Forum, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, March 2004

2004 Laura Csoboth, Student Travel Award, Illinois American Fisheries Society

Meeting, Champaign, Illinois, March 2004

Selected Professional Service (last five years)

2004

Reviewer, National Science Foundation proposal, Ecology Panel

(RUI proposal)

2004

Member, Skinner Award Committee, American Fisheries Society

(second term)

2004

North Central Representative, Early Life History Section,

American Fisheries Society.

2003

Workshop Presenter, Analysis ofFisheries Data, Illinois Chapter

ofthe American Fisheries Society Continuing Education

Workshop, Springfield, Illinois, April 2003

2003

Moderator, River Session, Illinois Chapter ofthe American

Fisheries Society, Rend Lake, IL, February 2003

2002

Reviewer, National Science Foundation proposal, Ecology Panel,

August 2002

2002

Chair, Student Judging of Oral Presentations, National American

Fisheries Society Meeting, Baltimore, Maryland, August 2002

2002-present Associate Editor,

Transactions of the American Fisheries Society

(handle 10 manuscripts per year)

200 1-2003

Judge, Regional Science Fair, SIUC campus, February 2001-2003

1999-2001

Member, Skinner Award Committee, American Fisheries Society

(first term)

2001

Reviewer, National Science Foundation proposal, Ecology Panel,

February 2001

2001

Moderator, Fisheries Session, Illinois Renewable Natural

Resources Meeting, February 2001

2000

Judge, Student Paper Presentations, American Fisheries Society

Revised 2-Jun-04

---

James

E.

Garvey

3

National Meeting, August 2000

1994-present Peer Reviewer,

Behaviour, Biological Invasions, Canadian

Journal ofZoology Transactions of the American Fisheries

Society, North American Journal ofFisheries Management,

Ecology, Ecological Applications, Great Basin Naturalist,

American MidlandNaturalist, PrairieNaturalist, Journal of

Plankton Research, Animal Behaviour, Journal ofthe North

American Benthological Society, Northwest Science, North

American Journal ofAquaculture, Proceedings of the Royal

Academy ofScience —Great Britain

Current Society Memberships

2003-present

Honorary Member, American Institute of Biological

Sciences

1 990-present

Ecological Society ofAmerica

1990-present

American Fisheries Society

1990-1996,

North American Benthological Society

1999-present

2001-present

Illinois Chapter ofthe American Fisheries Society

1999-present

Full Member, Sigma Xi

Invited Presentations

2003 Upper Mississippi Conservation Committee, Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin,

August 2003

2002 Ecology Consortium, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, November

2002

2000 Sam Parr Biological Station, Illinois Natural History Survey, June 2000

2000 Northeast Division Meeting of the American Fisheries Society, April 2000

2000 Department of Zoology, University of Wisconsin

-

Madison, February

2000

1999 Department ofBiology, William Jewell College, Missouri, September

1999

1998 Department ofBiology, Queen=s University, Kingston, Ontario, January

1998

1997 Apple Valley Fishing Club, Apple Valley, Ohio, October 1997

1996 Department ofBiological Sciences, University ofPittsburgh, December

1996.

Technical Reports

Garvey, J.E., and M.R Whiles. 2003. An assessment ofnational and Illinois dissolved

oxygen water quality criteria. Illinois Association of Wastewater Agencies. 52

pages

Garvey, J.E., B.D. Dugger, M.R. Whiles, S.R. Adams, M.B. Flinn, B.M. Burr, and R.J.

Revised 2-Jun-04

---

James E. Garvey 4

Sheehan. 2003. Responses offish, waterbirds, invertebrates, vegetation, and

water quality to environmental pool management: Mississippi River Pool

25.

U.S. Army Corps ofEngineers. 181 pages.

Garvey,

J.E.

2002. Winter habitat used by fishes in Smithland Pool, Ohio River. U.S.

Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S. Army Corps ofEngineers, 90 pages.

Garvey, J.E., and R.J. Sheehan. 2001. Winter habitat associations ofriverine fishes:

predictions for the Ohio River, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S. Army

Corps ofEngineers, 39 pages.

Garvey, J.E.,

R.A. Wright, R.A. Stein, E.M. Lewis, K.H. Ferry, and S.M. Micucci. 1998.

Assessing the influence ofsize on overwinter survival oflargemouth bass in Ohio

on-stream impoundments. Ohio Division of Wildlife Final Report. Federal Aid

in Sport Fish Restoration Program 29, 288 pages.

Stein, R.A., and

J.E. Garvey.

1996. A review ofa technical report prepared for the

Cuyahoga River (Ohio) Community Planning Organization by EnvironScience

Inc.

Theses and Dissertations

Garvey, J.E.

1997. Strong interactors and community structure: testing predictions for

reservoir food webs, Ph.D. dissertation, 235 pages.

Garvey, J.E.

1992. Selective predation as a mechanism ofcrayfish species replacement

in northern Wisconsin lakes. M.S. thesis, The Ohio State University, 88 pages.

Book Chapters

S.R. Chipps, and J.E.

Garvey.

In press. Assessment offood habits and feeding patterns.

In

M.L. Brown and C.S. Guy, editors. Analysis and Interpretation of Freshwater

Fisheries Data. 41 MS pages, 2 tables, 4 figures, 13 boxes. 1 April 2001.

Book Reviews

Garvey, J.E.

2003. Searching for scales in fisheries. Review of “Hierarchical

Perspectives on Marine Complexities: Searching for Systems in the Gulfof

Maine” by Spencer Apollonio. Columbia University Press, New York. 2002.

229 pp. Appeared in BioScience 53(10):1004-1006. (Invited)

Peer-Reviewed Publications (Selected Abstracts at

http://www.science.siu.edu/zoology/garvey/pubs.htmi)

Garvey,

J.E.,

K.G. Ostrand, and D.H. Wahl, In press. Interactions among allometric

scaling, predation and ration affect size-dependent growth and mortality offish

during winter. Ecology. Aug. 2003.

Ostrand, K.G., S.J. Cooke, J.E. Garvey, and D.H. Wahl. In press. The energetic impact

ofoverwinter prey assemblages on age-0 largemouth bass. Environmental

Biology ofFishes.

Colombo, R.E., P.S. Wills, and

J.E. Garvey.

2004. Use ofultrasound imaging to

Revised 2-Jun-04

---

James E. Garvey

5

determine sex ofshovelnose sturgeon

Scaphirhynchusplatorynchus

from the

Middle Mississippi River. North American Journal ofFisheries Management

24:322-326.

Roberts, M.R., JE. Wetzel, III, R.C. Brooks, and

J.E. Garvey.

2004. Daily

incrementation in the otoliths ofthe red spotted sunfish,

Lepomis miniatus.

North

American Journal ofFisheries Management 24:270-274.

Garvey, J.E.,

and E.A. Marschall. 2003. Understanding latitudinal trends in fish body

size through models ofoptimal seasonal energy allocation. Canadian Journal of

Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 60(8):938-948.

Micucci, S.M.,

J.E. Garvey, R.A.

Wright, and R.A. Stein. 2003. Individual growth and

foraging responses ofage-0 largemouth bass to mixed prey assemblages during

winter. Environmental Biologyof Fishes

67(2):157-168.

Garvey, J.E., J.E. Rettig, R.A. Stein, D.M. Lodge, and S.P. Klosiewski. 2003. Scale-

dependent associations among fish predation, littoral habitat, and distributions of

native and exotic crayfishes. Ecology 84(12): 3339-3348.

Whiles, M.J., and J.E. Garvey. In press. Aquatic resources ofthe Shawnee and Hoosier

National Forests, USDA Forest Service.

Garvey,

J.E., R.A.

Stein, R.A. Wright, and M.T Bremigan. 2003. Largemouth bass

recruitment in North America: quantifying underlying ecological mechanisms

along environmental gradients Black bass: ecology, conservation and

management. Edited by D. Philipp and M. Ridgway. American Fisheries Society

Symposium 3 1:7-23.

Garvey, J.E., D.R. DeVries, R.A. Wright, and J.G. Miner. 2003. Energetic adaptations

along a broad latitudinal gradient: implications for widely distributed

communities. BioScience 53(2): 141-150.

Garvey, J.E., T.P. Herra, and W.C. Leggett. 2002. Protracted reproduction in sunfish:

the temporal dimension in fish recruitment revisited. Ecological Applications

12:194-205.

Garvey, J.E., R.A. Wright, K.H. Ferry, and R.A. Stein. 2000. Evaluating how local-

and regional- scale processes interact to regulate growth of age-U largemouth

bass. Transactions ofthe American Fisheries Society 129:1044-1059.

Fullerton, A.H., J.E. Garvey, R.A. Wright, and R.A. Stein. 2000. Overwinter growth

and survival oflargemouth bass: interactions among size, food, origin, and winter

duration. Transactions ofthe American Fisheries Society 129:1-12.

Wright, R.A.,

J.E. Garvey, A.H.

Fullerton, and R.A. Stein. 1999. Using bioenergetics

to explore how winter conditions affect growth and consumption of age-U

largemouth bass. Transactions ofthe American Fisheries Society 128:603-6 12.

Garvey, J.E., and R.A. Stein. 1998. Competition between larval fishes in reservoirs:

the role ofrelative timing ofappearance. Transactions ofthe American Fisheries

Society 127:1023-1041.

Garvey, J.E.,

R.A. Wright, and R.A. Stein. 1998. Overwinter growth and survival of

age-0 largemouth bass: revisiting the role ofbody size. Canadian Journal of

Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 55:2414-2424.

Garvey, J.E., N.A. Dingledine, N.S. Donovan, and R.A. Stein. 1998. Exploring spatial

and temporal variation within reservoir food webs: predictions for fish

assemblages. Ecological Applications 8:104-120.

Revised 2-Jun-04

---

James E. Garvey 6

Garvey, J.E., and R.A. Stein. 1998. Linking bluegill and gizzard shad assemblages to

growth of age-0 largemouth bass in reservoirs. Transactions ofthe American

Fisheries Society 127:70-83.

Lodge, D.M., R.A. Stein, K.M. Brown, A.P. Covich, C. Brönmark,

J.E. Garvey,

and S.P.

Klosiewski. 1998. Predicting impact offreshwater exotic species on native

biodiversity: challenges in spatial and temporal scaling. Australian Journal of

Ecology 23:53-67.

Garvey, J.E.,

E.A. Marschall, and R.A. Wright. 1998. From star charts to stoneflies:

detecting relationships in continuous bivariate data. Ecology 79(2):442 447.

Schaus, M.H., M.J. Vanni, T.E. Wissing, M. Bremigan, J.E. Garvey, and R.A. Stein.

1997. Nitrogen and phosphorus excretion by the detritivorous gizzard shad

(Dorosoma cepedianum)

in a reservoir ecosystem. Limnology and Oceanography

42(6):1386-1397.

Garvey, J.E., R.A. Stein, and H.M. Thomas. 1994. Assessing how fish predation and

interspecific prey competition influence a crayfish assemblage. Ecology

75:532-

547.

Garvey, J.E., and R.A. Stein. 1993. Evaluating how chela size influences the invasion

potential ofan introduced crayfish,

Orconectes rusticus.

American Midland

Naturalist 129:172-181.

Garvey,

J.E.,

H.A. Owen, and R.W. Winner. 1991. Toxicity ofcopper to the green alga,

Chiamydomonas reinhardtii

(Chiorophycea), as affected by humic substances of

terrestrial and freshwater origin. Aquatic Toxicology 19:89-96.

Oral Presentations and Posters (Last Five Years)

Williamson, C.J., and

J.E.

Garvey. Growth and mortality of silver carp: implications for

its rise to dominance in the Middle Mississippi River. Illinois Chapter of the

American Fisheries Society, Champaign, IL, March 2004. (Oral presentation by

Williamson)

Koch, B.T., J.E.

Garvey,

and M. Lydy. The effects ofland use on organochiorine

accumulation in middle Mississippi River shovelnose sturgeon: intersexuality

and reproductive consequences. Illinois Chapter of the American Fisheries

Society, Champaign, IL, March 2004. (Oral presentation by Koch)

Csoboth, L.A., D.W. Schultz, K. DeGrandChamp,

J.E. Garvey,

and R.M. Neumann.

Fish response at a backwater-river interchange: the Swan Lake rehabilitation and

enhancement project. Illinois Chapter of the American Fisheries Society,

Champaign, IL, March 2004. (Poster presentation)

Colombo, R.E., J.E. Garvey, and R.C. Heidinger. Comparing demographics of channel

catfish in fished and un-fished reaches of the Wabash River. 64~Meeting ofthe

Midwest Fish and Wildlife Conference. Kansas City, December 2003. (Oral

presentation by Colombo)

Spier, T.,

J.E. Garvey,

R.C. Heidinger, R.J. Sheehan, P. Wills, K. Hurley, R.E.

Colombo, R.C. Brooks. Pallid and shovelnose sturgeon movement and habitat

usage in the middle Mississippi River.

64th

Meeting of the Midwest Fish and

Wildlife Conference. Kansas City, December 2003 (Oral presentation by Spier)

Marschall, E.A., and

J.E. Garvey.

Understanding latitudinal trends in fish body size

Revised 2-Jun-04

---

James E. Garvey 7

through models Of optimal seasonal energy allocation. 88th Meeting ofthe

Ecological Society ofAmerica, Savannah, Georgia, July 2003 (Oral presentation

by Marschall)

Braeutigam, B.J., and J.E. Garvey. Winter habitat used by fish in Smithland Pool, Ohio

River. Ohio River Research Review, Indiana, August 2003. (Oral presentation

by Braeutigam)

Garvey, J.E.

Importance offlood-plain connectivity to fish assemblages in the

Mississippi River. Middle Mississippi River Workgroup Meeting, Carbondale,

IL, June 2003. (Oral presentation by Garvey)

O’Neill, B.J.,

J.E. Garvey,

M.R. Whiles, and K.R. Lips. Scale-dependent

interrelationships among, fish, landscape characteristics, and arnbystomatid

salamanders in forest ponds. Annual Meeting ofthe American Society of

Ichthyologists and Herpetologists, Manaus, Brazil, June 2003 (Oral presentation

by O’Neill)

Spier, T.,

J. Garvey, R.

Heidinger, R. Sheehan, P. Wills, and K. Hurley. Demographics

and habitat usage ofpallid sturgeon in

the Middle Mississippi River. Meeting of

the Illinois Chapter ofAmerican Fisheries Society, Rend Lake, IL, February 2003

(Oral

presentation

by Spier)

Jackson, N.D., J.E. Garvey, R.C. Heidinger, and R.J. Sheehan. Age and mortality of

shovelnose sturgeon,

Scaphirhynchus platorynchus,

in the Middle Mississippi

River and Lower Wabash Rivers, Illinois. Meeting ofthe Illinois Chapter of

American Fisheries Society, Rend Lake, IL, February 2003 (Oral presentation by

Jackson)

Flmnn, M.B., S. R. Adams, M.R. Whiles, J.E. Garvey, B.M. Burr, and R.J. Sheehan. Fish

and macroinvertebrate responses to environmental pooi management in

Mississippi River Pool

25.

Meeting ofthe Illinois Chapter ofAmerican Fisheries

Society, Rend Lake, IL, February 2003 (Oral presentation by Flmnn)

Colombo, R.E., J.E. Garvey, R.C. Heidinger and R.J. Sheehan. Population

demographics of channel catfish

Ictalurus pun ctatus

in the Wabash River.

Meeting ofthe Illinois Chapter ofAmerican Fisheries Society, Rend Lake, IL,

February 2003 (Oral presentation by Colombo)

Garvey, J.E. Early growth ofcentrarchids along a productivity gradient: setting the

stage for future interactions. American Fisheries Society Meeting, Baltimore,

MD, August 2002 (Oral presentation)

Ostrand, K.G., S.J. Cooke, J.E. Garvey, D.H. Wahl. Age-0 largernouth bass: the

overwinter effects ofprey type on growth and spring swimming performance.

American Fisheries Society Meeting, Baltimore, MD, August 2002 (Oral

presentation by Ostrand)

Garvey, J.E.,

S.M. Micucci, R.A. Wright, and R.A. Stein. Prey assemblage structure

during winter influences the condition ofage-0 largemouth bass. Midwest Fish

and Wildlife Meeting, Des Moines, IA, December 2001 (Oral presentation)

Garvey, i.E. Using optimal allocation models to explain latitudinal trends in recruitment

oflargemouth bass. Illinois Renewable Natural Resources Conference, Peoria,

IL, February 2001 (Oral presentation; received Best Oral Presentation)

Bremigan, M.T., R.A. Stein, and J.E. Garvey. Variable gizzard shad recruitment and its

effects along a reservoir productivity gradient. American Society ofLimnology

Revised 2-Jun-04

---

James E. Garvey 8

and Oceanography Meeting

-

Copenhagen, Denmark, June 2000 (Poster

presentation).

Evans-White, M., W.K. Dodds, and J.E. Garvey. Crayfish biomass, growth, and

production in a tallgrass prairie stream. North American Benthological Society

Meeting, Colorado, May 2000 (Oral presentation by Dodds).

Garvey, J.E. Patterns ofsportfish recruitment in natural lakes and reservoirs: do

generalities exist? Kansas Chapter ofthe American Fisheries Society Meeting,

February 2000 (Oral presentation; received Best Oral Presentation).

Garvey, J.E. From fish in lakes to crayfish in prairie streams: searching for general

recruitment mechanisms and ecosystem consequences. KSU Ecology Research

Seminar Series, November 1999 (Oral presentation).

Garvey, J.E., T.P.

Herra, and W.C. Leggett. Mechanisms underlying the spatial

distribution oflarval sunfish

(Lepomis

spp.) in Lake Opinicon, Ontario.

American Fisheries Society Meeting

-

Charlotte, North Carolina, August 1999

(Oral presentation).

Garvey, i.E. Interactions between ecosystems and life histories: predicting fish

community structure in lakes. Kansas EPSCoR Conference, Topeka, KS, April

1999 (Poster presentation).

Revised 2-Jun-04

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ni

0~

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MATT ROWLAND

WHILES

Department of Zoology

Southern Illinois University

Carbondale,

Illinois

Phone: (618) 453-7639

PERSONAL INFORMATION

Born December 4, 1964; Kansas City, Missouri.

Married 1998, 1 daughter and 1 son

EDUCATION

9/91-6/95

University ofGeorgia, Athens, Georgia;

Ph.D.

Ecology.

Dissertation: Disturbance, recovery, and invertebrate communities

in southern Appalachian headwater streams.

9/88-9/91

University ofGeorgia, Athens, Georgia; M.S. Entomology.

Thesis: First-year recovery ofa southern Appalachian headwater stream

following an insecticide induced disturbance.

8/84-8/88

Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas; B.S. Biology.

AREAS OF SPECIALIZATION

Ecosystem ecology with emphasis on freshwater ecosystem structure and function (mainly

streams and wetlands), the role ofinvertebrates in ecosystems, ecosystem-level consequences

ofextinctions, energetic linkages between aquatic and terrestrial systems, the role of

disturbance, and biological assessment offreshwater habitats.

PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE

2003-

Associate

Professor of

Zoology, Southern Illinois University

Teaching Freshwater Invertebrates, Stream Ecology, and General Ecology.

Advising graduate research in freshwater ecosystem ecology.

2000-

Assistant Professor of Zoology, Southern Illinois University

Teaching Freshwater Invertebrates, Stream Ecology, and General Ecology.

Advising graduate research in freshwater ecosystem ecology.

2000-

Adjunct Assistant Professor of Entomology, Kansas State University

Serving as a graduate committee member for students pursuing studies in the

area ofaquatic invertebrate ecology

---

2

PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE (continued)

1997-00

Assistant Professor ofEntomology’

(non-tenure track), Kansas State University

Taught Insect Ecology, Insects and People, Economic Entomology,

and an interdisciplinary Environmental Concerns course. Advised graduate

research in invertebrate ecology.

1995-97

Assistant Professor of

Biology, Wayne State College

Taught Introductory Zoology, Invertebrate Zoology, Entomology, Vertebrate

Zoology, Ecology, and General Biology (majors and non-majors). Advised

undergraduate research in freshwater invertebrate ecology.

1996-

Adjunct Graduate Faculty,

University ofMemphis

Graduate committee member for students working in aquatic ecology.

1989-95

Graduate Teaching Assistant,

University ofGeorgia

Instructed numerous laboratory courses including General Biology, Entomology,

Animal Behavior, Aquatic Entomology, General Ecology, and Insect Ecology.

1994

Laboratory

Coordinator, University ofGeorgia

Instructed, scheduled, and supervised graduate teaching assistants for the

General Biology program.

1988-94

Research Assistant, University ofGeorgia

Investigated the role ofaquatic invertebrates in stream ecosystem function.

Participated in all aspects of a long-term study including sampling and

processing ofinvertebrate communities, organic matter, and water chemistry.

1987-88

Research Assistant, Kansas State University

Investigated effects ofnutrient enrichment on algal growth and invertebrate

grazer densities in streams on LTER sites across the country.

1987-87

Undergraduate Research Assistant,

Kansas State University

Investigated small mammal behavior on islands in the Sea ofCortez with and

without reptilian predators.

1985-87

Undergraduate Research

Assistant, Kansas State University

Examined macroinvertebrate community dynamics

in streams with contrasting

hydrologic

regimes on

the Konza Prairie Research Natural Area.

HONORS AND AWARDS

1997

Professor ofthe Year, Math and Sciences Division, Wayne State College.

1996

Professor ofthe Year, Math and Sciences Division, Wayne State College.

1995

Outstanding Teaching Assistant, University ofGeorgia.

1994-1995 University-Wide Assistantship Award, University ofGeorgia.

1994-1995

Merit Assistantship Award; Outstanding Teaching and Research, Univ. of GA.

1993-1994 Merit Assistantship Award; Outstanding Teaching and Research, Univ. of GA

1988

Nominee for Outstanding Senior Biology Student, Kansas State University.

1987

Hydrolab Award; best poster, North American Benthological Society meetings

1984

Designated Kansas State Scholar.

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3

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS

Dodds, W. K.,

and M. R. Whiles.

Inpress.

Factors related to quality and quantity ofsuspended

particles in rivers: general continent-scale patterns in the United States.

Environmental

Management:

Whiles, M. R., J. B.

Jensen, J. G. Palis, and W. G. Dyer.

Inpress.

Diets oflarval flatwoods

salamanders,

Ambystoma cingulatum,

from Florida and South Carolina.

Journal of

Herpetology.

Whiles, M. R., and J. E. Garvey.

Inpress.

Freshwater resources within the Shawnee-Hoosier

Ecological Assessment Region. Special Publication of the USDA Forest Service:

Dodds, W. K., K. Gido, M. R. Whiles, K. M. Fritz, and W. J. Matthews. 2004. Life on the

Edge: Ecology ofPrairie Streams.

Bioscience 54:

205-216

Ranvestel, A. W., K. R. Lips, C. M. Pringle, M. R. Whiles, and R. J. Bixby. 2004. Neotropical

tadpoles influence stream benthos: evidence for ecological consequences of amphibian

declines.

Freshwater Biology

49: 274-285.

Webber, J. A., K. W. J. Williard, M. R. Whiles, M. L. Stone, J. J. Zaczek, and K. D. Davie.

2004. Watershed scale assessment ofthe impact offorested riparian zones on

stream

water quality. Pages 114-120 In: Van Sambeek, J.W.; J.O. Dawson; F. Ponder, Jr.; E.F.

Loewenstein; and J.S. Fralish, eds. Proceedings, 13th Central Hardwood Forest

Conference; Urbana, IL. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-234. St. Paul, MN: USDA Forest Service,

North Central Research Station.

Evans-White, M. A., W. K. Dodds, and M. R.

Whiles.

2003. Ecosystem significance of

crayfishes and central stonerollers in a tallgrass prairie stream: functional differences

between co-occurring omnivores.

Journal ofthe North American Benthological Society:

22: 423-441.

Callaham, M. A., Jr., J. M. Blair, T. C. Todd, D. J. Kitchen, and M. R. Whiles. 2003.

Macroinvertebrates in North American tallgrass prairie soils: Effects offire, mowing, and

fertilization on density and biomass.

Soil Biology and Biochemistry

35:1079-1093.

Whiles, M. R., and W. K. Dodds. 2002. Relationships between stream size, suspended

particles, and filter-feeding macroinvertebrates in a Great Plains drainage network.

Journal ofEnvironmental Quality

31: 1589-1600.

Jonas, J., M. R. Whiles, and R. E. Charlton. 2002. Aboveground invertebrate responses to land

management differences in a central Kansas grassland.

Environmental Entomology

31:

1142-1152.

Stagliano, D. M., and M. R. Whiles. 2002. Macroinvertebrate production and trophic structure

in a taligrass prairie headwater stream.

Journal ofthe North American Benthological

Society2l:

97-113.

Callaham, M. A., M. R. Whiles, and J. M. Blair. 2002. Annual fire, mowing, and fertilization

effects on two annual cicadas (Homoptera: Cicadidae) in taligrass prairie.

American

Midland Naturalist

148: 90-101.

Meyer, C. K., M. R. Whiles, and R. E. Charlton. 2002. Life history, secondary production, and

ecosystem significance ofacridid grasshoppers in annually burned and unburned tallgrass

prairie.

American Entomologist

48:

52-61.

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4

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS (continued)

Whiles, M. R., and B. S. Goldowitz. 2001. Hydrologic influences on insect emergence

production from central

Platte River wetlands.

EcologicalApplications

11: 1829-1842.

Whiles, M. R. M. A. Callaham, C. K. Meyer, B. L. Brock, and R. E. Charlton. 2001.

Emergence ofperiodical cicadas from a Kansas riparian forest: densities, biomass, and

nitrogen flux.

American MidlandNaturalist 145:

176-187.

Schrank, S. J., C. S. Guy, M. R. Whiles, and B. L. Brock. 2001. Assessment of

Physicochemical and watershed features influencing Topeka shiner

Notropis topeka

distribution in Kansas streams.

Copeia

2001: 413-42 1.

Dodds, W. K., M. A. Evans-White, N. M. Gerlanc, L. J. Gray, D. A.Gudder, M. J. Kemp, A. L.

Lopez, D. Stagliano, E. A. Strauss, J. L. Tank, M. R.

Whiles, W. M. Wollheim.

2001.

Quantification ofthe nitrogen cycle in a prairie stream.

Ecosystems:

3: 574-589.

Whiles, M. R., B. L. Brock, A. C. Franzen, and S. Dinsmore II. 2000. Stream invertebrate

communities, water quality, and land use patterns in an agricultural drainage basin of

northenNebraska.

Environmental Management:

26:

5

63-576.

Jensen, J. B., and M. R. Whiles. 2000. Diets ofsympatric

Plethodonpetraeus

and

Plethodon

giutinosus. Journal ofthe Elisha MitchellScientific Society

116: 245-250.

Callaharn, M. A., Jr., M.

R.

Whiles, C. K. Meyer, B. L. Brock, and R. B. Charlton. 2000.

Feeding ecology and emergence production of annual cicadas (Homoptera: Cicadidae) in

taligrass prairie.

Oecologia

123: 535-542.

Alexander, K. A., and M. R. Whiles. 2000. A new species of

Ironoquia

Banks (Trichoptera:

Limnephilidae) from the central Platte River, Nebraska.

Entomological News:

111: 1-7.

Whiles, M. R., B. S. Goldowitz, andR. Chariton. 1999. Life history and production of a semi-

terrestrial limnephilid caddisily in a Platte River wetland.

Journal of the North American

Benthological Society

18: 533-544.

Goldowitz, B. S., and M. R. Whiles. 1999. Investigations offish, amphibians, and aquatic

invertebrates within the middle Platte River system. Published final Report, Platte

Watershed Program, Cooperative Agreement X99708 101, USEPA.

Whiles, M. R., and B. S. Goldowitz. 1998. Biological responses to hydrologic fluctuation in

wetland sloughs of the central Platte River.

In

Lingle, G. (ed.)

Proceedings ofthe Ninth

Platte River Basin Ecosystem Symposium.

USFWS and USEPA Region VII.

Whiles, M. R., and J. B. Wallace. 1997. Litter decomposition and macroinvertebrate

communities in headwater streams draining pine and hardwood catchments.

Hydrobiologia 353:

107-119.

Wallace, J. B., T. F. Cuffney, S. L. Eggert, and M. R. Whiles. 1997. Stream organic matter

inputs, storage, and export for Satellite Branch at Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory, North

Carolina, USA.

Journal of the North American Benthological Society

16: 67-74.

Whiles, M. R. and J. B. Wallace. 1996. Macroinvertebrate production in a headwater stream

during recovery from anthropogenic disturbance and hydrologic extremes.

C’anadian

Journal ofFisheries and Aquatic Sciences

52: 2402-2422.

Wallace, J. B., J. W. Grubaugh, and M. R. Whiles. 1996. The influence of coarse woody debris

on stream habitats and invertebrate biodiversity.

In

McMinn, J. W. and D. A. Crossley, Jr.

---

5

(eds.). Biodiversity and coarse woody debris in southern

forests.

Gen. Tech. Rept. SE-94.

USDA Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station.

PROFESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS (continued)

Wallace, J. B., J. W. Grubaugh, and M. R. Whiles. 1996. Biotic indices and stream ecosystem

processes: results from an experimental study.

Ecological Applications 6:

140-151

Whiles, M. R. and J. W. Grubaugh. 1996. Coarse woody debris and amphibian and reptile

biodiversity in southern forests.

In

McMinn, J. W. and D. A. Crossley, Jr. (eds.).

Biodiversity and coarse woody debris in southern forests. Gen. Tech. Rept. SE-94.

USDA Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station.

Wallace, J. B., M. R. Whiles, S. Eggert, T. F. Cuffriey, G. J.Lugthart, and K. Chung. 1995.

Long-term dynamics ofcoarse particulate organic matter in three Appalachian Mountain

streams.

Journal ofthe North American Benthological Society

14: 2 17-232.

Whiles, M. R., K. Chung, and J. B. Wallace. 1993. Influence of

Lepidostoma

(Trichoptera:

Lepidostornatidae) on leaflitter processing in disturbed streams.

American Midland

Naturalist

130: 356-363.

Wallace, J. B., M. R. Whiles, J. R. Webster, T. F. Cuffney, G. J. Lugthart, and K. Chung.

1993.

Dynamics ofparticulate inorganic matter in headwater streams: linkages with

invertebrates.

Journal ofthe’ North American Benthological Society

12: 112-125.

Whiles, M. R. and J. B. Wallace. 1992. First-year benthic recoveryof a southern Appalachian

stream following three years of insecticide treatment.

Freshwater Biology

28: 81-91.

Hooker, K. L. and M. R. Whiles. 1988. A technique for collection and study ofsubterranean

invertebrates.

Southwestern Naturalist

33: 375-376.

ORAL PRESENTATIONS

Meyer, C. K., M. R. Whiles, S. G. Baer, and B. S. Goldowitz. 2004. Macroinvertebrate

communities and ecosytem function in backwater sloughs ofthe central Platte River:

influence of hydrologic gradients and restoration activities. Invited symposia:

Entomology in Prairie Ecosystems. Annual meetings ofthe North Central Branch of the

Entomological Society ofAmerica, Kansas City, MO.

Regester, K.J., K. R. Lips, and M. R. Whiles. 2004. The significance ofpond-breeding

salamanders to energy flow and subsidies in an Illinois forest ecosystem. Midwest

Ecology and Evolution Conference, University ofNotre Dame, March

5-7.

Walther, D. A., M. R. Whiles, D. W. Butler, and M. B. Flmnn. 2004. Community level

estimation ofnon-predatory chironomid production in a southern Illinois stream. Annual

meetings ofthe North Central Branch ofthe Entomological Society ofAmerica, Kansas

City, MO.

Meyer, C. K., M. R. Whiles, and S. G. Baer. 2003. Aboveground production and belowground

biomass in natural and restored Platte River slough wetlands. Annual meetings ofthe

Society for Ecological Restoration, Austin, TX.

Whiles, M. R.

2003. Freshwater macroinvertebrate communities and disturbance: tools for

basic and applied investigations in freshwater ecosystems. Invited seminar speaker,

Purdue University Department ofForestry, Fisheries, and Wildlife.

---

6

Callaham, M.A., Jr.,

M.R. Whiles, P.F.

Hendrix, and J.M. Blair. 2003. Using natural

abundance stable isotopes to examine the feeding ecology ofcicadas in tallgrass prairie.

Invited symposium presentation, Entomological Society ofAmerica Annual Meetings,

Cincinnati OH.

Whiles, M. R. 2003. Biological responses to hydrologic variability and restoration activities in

central Platte River backwater wetlands. Invited seminar speaker, Eastern Illinois

University Dept. of Biology.

Callaham, M.A., Jr., P.F.

Hendrix,

J.M. Blair, and

M.R. Whiles.

2003. Natural abundance and

tracer applications of stable isotopes for examination ofsoil invertebrate feeding ecology.

Invited symposium presentation at Soil Science Society ofAmerica Annual Meetings,

Denver, CO.

Whiles, M. R. 2003. Biological responses to hydrologic variability in Platte River backwater

wetlands. Invited seminar speaker, University ofIllinois Dept. ofNatural Resources and

Environmental Sciences.

Flmnn, M. B., M. R. Whiles, and S. R. Adams. 2003. Response ofaquatic macroinvertebrates to

environmental pooi management and vegetation in Mississippi River backwater wetlands.

Annual Meetings ofthe North American Benthological Society, Athens, GA.

Stone, M. L., M. R. Whiles, J. A. Webber, and K. J. Williard. 2003. Influence ofriparian

vegetation on water quality, in-stream habitat, and macroinvertebrates in southern Illinois

agricultural streams. Annual Meetings ofthe North American Benthological Society,

Athens, GA.

Oneill, B. J., S. E. Garvey, M. R. Whiles, and K. A. Lips. 2003. Scale-dependent

interrelationships among fish, landscape characteristics, and ambystomatid salamanders

in forest ponds. Joint meeting of ichthyologists and herpetologists, Manaus, Brazil.

Flinn, M. B., S. R. Adams, M. R. Whiles, S. E. Garvey, B. M. Burr, and R. S. Sheehan. 2003.

Fish and macroinvertebrate responses to environmental pool management in Mississippi

River pool 25. Illinois Chapter ofthe American Fisheries Society, Rend Lake, IL.

Adams, S. R. M. B. Flinn, B. M. Burr, R. S. Sheehan, and M. R. Whiles. 2002. Larval ecology

ofblue sucker

(Cycleptus elongatus)

in the Mississippi River. American Society of

Ichthyologists and Herpetologists meetings, Kansas City, MO.

Whiles, M. R.

2002. Ecology and ecosystem significance ofcicadas in a tallgrass prairie

landscape. Invited seminar speaker, Dept. ofBiology, University ofMemphis.

Whiles, M. R.,

and B. S. Goldowitz. 2002. Influence ofhydrology and fish on

macroinvertebrate communities in backwater sloughs ofthe central Platte River,

Nebraska. Annual Meetings of the North American Benthological Society, Pittsburgh.

Whiles, M. R., M. L. Stone, S. Webber, and K. Williard. 2001. The influence offorested

riparian buffers on water quality and stream invertebrates in Sugar Creek drainage,

Illinois. Governor’s Conference on Management ofthe Illinois river system, Peoria, Ii.

Webber, J. A., K. W. Williard, M. R. Whiles, and M. L. Stone. 2001. Watershed-scale

assessment ofthe impact of forested riparian buffer strips on stream water quality and

biotic integrity. Ecological Society of America 2’~International Nitrogen Conference,

Potomac, MD.

Evans-White, M. A., W. K. Dodds, and M. R. Whiles. 2001. Trophic basis ofproduction of

crayfish and central stonerollers in a prairie stream. Annual Meetings ofthe North

American Benthological Society, Lacrosse, WI.

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7

Whiles, M. R., and W. K. Dodds. 2001. Relationships between stream size, suspended

particles, and filter-feeding macroinvertebrates in a Great Plains river system. Annual

Meetings ofthe North American Benthological Society, Lacrosse, WI.

Whiles, M. R. and M. L. Stone. 2001. Relationships between riparian zone vegetation, water

quality, and stream invertebrate communities. Midwestern Renewable Natural Resources

Conference, Peoria, Illinois.

Jensen, J. B., C. Camp, S. L. Marshall, and M. R. Whiles. 2001. Recent advances in the

knowledge ofdistribution and natural history ofthe Pigeon Mountain salamander

(Plethodon petraeus).

Joint annual meeting ofthe Herpetologists League and the Society

forthe Study of Amphibians and Reptiles, Indianapolis, Indiana.

Stagliano, D. M. and M. R. Whiles. 2000. Aquatic invertebrate trophic structure and secondary

production in a tallgrass prairie stream. Annual Meetings of the North American

Benthological Society, Keystone, Colorado.

Meyer, C. K., Whiles, M. R., and R. E. Chariton. 2000. Secondary production and energetics of

grass-feeding acridids in tallgrass prairie. Annual meetings of the Southwestern Branch

ofthe Entomological Society ofAmerica, Dallas, TX.

Jonas, J. L., M. R. Whiles, and R. E. Charlton. 2000. Land use patterns and insect diversity in a

central Kansas grassland. Annual meetings ofthe Southwestern Branch ofthe

Entomological Society ofAmerica, Dallas, TX.

Dodds, W. K., M. Evans-White, N. M. Gerlanc, L. Gray, D. Gudder, M. J. Kemp, A. Lopez, D.

M. Stagliano, E. A. Strauss, S. L. Tank, M. R. Whiles, and W. M. Wollheim. 2000.

Quantification ofthe nitrogen cycle in a prairie stream: Konza LINX. Annual Meetings

ofthe North American Benthological Society, Keystone, Colorado.

Whiles, M. R., and B. S. Goldowitz. 1999. Influence ofhydrology on aquatic insect emergence

production from backwater sloughs ofthe central Platte River, Nebraska. Annual

meetings ofthe North American Benthological Society, Duluth, MN.

Meyer, C. K., M. R. Whiles, and R. E. Charlton. 1999. Secondary production and energetics of

a dominant grass-feeding grasshopper in tallgrass prairie. Annual meetings ofthe

Entomological Society ofAmerica, Atlanta.

Stagliano, D., M. R. Whiles, and R. E. Charlton. 1999. Aquatic insect production and

functional structure in a tallgrass prairie headwater stream. Annual meetings ofthe

Entomological Society ofAmerica, Atlanta.

Whiles, M. R. 1999. Natural History and emergence production patterns of cicadas

(Hornoptera: Cicadidae) on the Konza Prairie Research Natural Area, Kansas. Invited

seminar speaker, University of Kansas, November 4, 1999.

Jeffrey, J. D., and M. R. Whiles. 1999. Effects ofthe PGA-class Colbert Hills golf course

construction on prairie amphibians.

26th

meetings ofthe KS Herp. Society, Pratt.

Whiles, M. R. 1999. Ecology and significance ofcicadas in a tallgrass prairie ecosystem.

Invited seminar speaker, University of Maine, October 21, 1999.

Evans-White, M. A., W. K. Dodds, M. J. Kemp, L. A. Gray, A. Lopez, S. L. Tank, and M. R.

Whiles.

1999. Patterns ofnitrogen cycling in a prairie stream food web. Annual

meetings ofthe North American Benthological Society, Duluth, MN.

Goldowitz, B. S., and M. R. Whiles. 1999. Influence ofhydrologic fluctuations on aquatic

vertebrate communities in central Platte River Wetlands. Annual meetings of the

Ecological Society ofAmerica, Spokane, WA.

---

8

Whiles, M. R. 1999. Significance ofarthropods to prairie ecosystem function. Invited

symposium speaker, annual meetings ofthe Central States Entomological Society,

Manhattan, KS.

Whiles, M. R. 1999. Aquatic invertebrate communities and disturbance: tools for basic and

applied investigations. Invited seminar speaker, Southern Illinois University.

Whiles, M. R., A. Franzen, S. Dinsmore, and B. L. Brock. 1998. Use ofinvertebrate rapid

bioassessment for identification of stream reaches contributing to water quality

degradation in a northeast Nebraska reservoir. Joint meetings of the Association of

Limnologists and Oceanographers and the Ecological Society ofAmerica, St. Louis, MO.

Evans-White, M. A., W. K. Dodds, M. J. Kemp, L. A. Gray, J. L. Tank, M. R. Whiles, and A.

Lopez. 1998. Nitrogen transfer through a prairie stream food web. Annual meetings of

the Great Plains Limnological Society, Pittsburg, KS.

Whiles, M. R. and B. S. Goldowitz. 1998. Biological responses to hydrologic fluctuation in

wetland sloughs ofthe central Platte River. The 9th Platte River Basin Ecosystem

Symposium, Kearney, NE.

Whiles, M. R. 1997. Invertebrate bioassessment: advantages, techniques, and applications.

Invited speaker, ann. meetings ofthe Nebraska Natural Resource Districts, Kearney, NE.

Whiles, M. R. 1997. Invertebrate communities and ecosystem processes in disturbed lotic

systems. Invited seminar speaker, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS.

Whiles, M. R. 1996. Disturbance, invertebrate con~imunities,and stream ecosystem processes in

southern Appalachian streams. Invited seminar speaker, Texas Tech University,

Lubbock.

Whiles, M. R. 1995. Stream ecosystem research at Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory. Invited

seminar speaker, Southeastern Oklahoma State University, Durant, Oklahoma.

Whiles, M. R., and S. Bruce Wallace. 1995. Leaf litter decomposition and shredder

communities in streams draining mixed hardwood and white pine watersheds. Annual

meetings ofthe North American Benthological Society, Keystone, Colorado.

Wallace, J. B., J. W. Grubaugh, and M. R. Whiles. 1995. Biotic indices and stream ecosystem

processes: results from an experimental study. Annual meetings ofthe North American

Benthological Society, Keystone, Colorado.

Whiles, M. R. 1995. Disturbance and aquatic invertebrate communities in southern

Appalachian Mountain streams. Invited seminar speaker, University ofTennessee at

Chattanooga.

Whiles, M. R. 1994. Recovery dynamics ofinvertebrate communities and litter processing in

southern Appalachian streams following disturbance. Invited seminar, Berry College,

Mount Berry, Georgia.

Whiles, M. R. and J. B. Wallace. 1994. Long-term measurements ofcoarse particulate organic

matter export from headwater streams. Annual meeting ofthe North American

Benthological Society, Orlando, Florida.

Grubaugh, S. W., Wallace, S. B., and M. R. Whiles. 1994.

1956-57

versus 1991-92: A

comparison ofmacroinvertebrate communities and potential effects of changing land

usage in a Georgia piedmont river. Annual meeting ofthe North American Benthological

Society, Orlando, Florida.

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Whiles, M. R.

1993. Coarse woody debris and amphibian and reptile diversity in southern

forests. Conference on coarse woody debris in southern forests: effects on biodiversity,

University ofGeorgia, Institute ofEcology.

Whiles, M. R., and G. S. Lugthart. 1993. Secondary production in a headwater stream during

record dry and wet years. Annual meeting ofthe North American Benthological Society,

Calgary, Alberta, Canada.

Whiles, M. R., Wallace, J. B., and K. Chung 1992. Use of a refractory litter species by a

caddisfly: the role of

Lepidostoma

in stream recovery from disturbance. Annual meeting

ofthe North American Benthological Society, Louisville, Kentucky.

Whiles, M. R., and S. B. Wallace 1991. First-year macroinvertebrate community recovery in a

southern Appalachian stream following an insecticide induced disturbance. Annual

meeting ofthe North American Benthological Society, Santa Fe, New Mexico.

Whiles, M. R., Tate, C. M., and K. L. Hooker 1988. The influence ofnutrient enrichments and

grazers on periphyton growth in Konza Prairie streams.

Annual Division of Biology

Graduate Student Forum, Kansas State University.

Tate, C.M., Whiles,

M.R.,

and K. L. Hooker 1988. Influence of nutrients and grazers on

periphyton biomass in prairie streams. Annual meeting

ofthe North American

Benthological Society, Tuscaloosa, Alabama.

Tate, C.M., Hooker, K.L., and M. R. Whiles 1987. Seasonal response ofperiphyton to nutrient

enrichment in prairie streams. Annual meeting ofthe North American Benthological

Society, Orono, Maine.

POSTER PRESENTATIONS

Rowlett, S. H., D. A. Walther, and M. R. Whiles. 2004. A comparison ofmacroinvertebrate

community structure on artificial rock riffles to snag and exposed streambed habitats in

Cache River, Illinios. Annual meetings of the North Central Branch ofthe Entomological

Society ofAmerica, Kansas City, MO.

Whiles, M. R., D. W. Butler, D. A. Waither, and M. B. Flmnn. 2003. Temperature-dependent

growth rates ofnon-predatory chironomids from a southern Illinois stream. Annual

meeting ofthe North American Benthological Society, Athens, GA.

Stone, M. L., M. R. Whiles, S. A. Webber, and K. Williard. 2002. Relationships between

riparian vegetation, water chemistry, and stream invertebrates in a southern Illinois

agricultural landscape. Annual meeting of the North American Benthological Society,

Pittsburgh.

Flinn, M. B., R. Adams, M. R.

Whiles, B.

Burr, and R. Sheehan. 2002. Feeding ecology of

larval blue suckers

(cycleptus elongatus):

a direct benefit of riverine backwater

invertebrates to a main channel fish. Annual meeting ofthe North American

Benthological Society, Pittsburgh.

Flinn, M. B., R. Adams, M. R.

Whiles, B. Burr,

and R. Sheehan. 2002. Feeding ecology of

larval blue suckers in Mississippi River backwaters. Mississippi River Research

Consortium meetings, LaCrosse, WI.

Meyer, C. K., M. R. Whiles, andR. E. Charlton. 2001. Secondary production and energetics of

grasshoppers as affected by annual burning in taligrass prairie. Annual meetings of the

North Central Branch of the Entomological Society ofAmerica, Fort Collins, CO.

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Callaham, M. A., J. M. Blair, T. C. Todd, D. J. Kitchen, and M. R. Whiles. 2001. Fire,

mowing, and fertilization effects on macroinvertbrate assemblages in tallgrass prairie

soils. Soil Ecology Society Conference, Atlanta, Georgia.

Whiles, M. R., M. A. Callaham, Sr., C. K. Meyer, and S. M. Blair. 2000. Land Management

Influences on Grassland Cicada Emergence Dynamics. Ecological Society ofAmerica

All Scientists meetings, Snowbird, Utah.

Corum, R. A., W. K. Dodds, and M. R. Whiles. 2000. Distribution offilter-feeding

invertebrates in central Kansas rivers and streams. Midwest Limnological Society

Meetings, Lawrence, KS.

Whiles, M. R., D. M. Stagliano, and R. B. Charlton. 2000. Bioassessment ofdisturbed prairie

streams: problems with traditional fish and aquatic invertebrate metrics. Annual

Meetings ofthe North American Benthological Society, Keystone, Colorado.

Callaham, M. A., M. R.

Whiles,

C. K. Meyer, B. L. Brock, and R. E. Charlton. 1999.

Emergence production and ecology ofannual cicadas (Homoptera: Cicadidae) in taligrass

prairie. Annual meetings ofthe Entomological Society ofAmerica, Atlanta, GA.

Callaham, M. A., M. R. Whiles, C. K. Meyer, B. L. Brock, and R. E. Charlton. 1999. Feeding

ecology ofcicadas (Homoptera: Cicadidae) in tallgrass prairie. Soil Ecology Society

Conference, Chicago, IL.

Jonas, S. L., M. R. Whiles, and R. E. Charlton. 1999. Influence ofland use patterns on insect

diversity in a central Kansas grassland. Annual meetings ofthe Entomological Society of

America, Atlanta, GA.

Whiles, M. R., M. A. Callaham, C. K. Meyer, B. L. Brock, and R. E. Charlton. 1998. Periodical

cicada emergence production in a northeast Kansas riparian forest. Annual meetings of

the Entomological Society of America, Las Vegas, NV.

Stagliano, D., R. E. Chariton, and M. R. Whiles, 1998. Assessing environmental impacts on

Colbert Hills using fish and aquatic insect communities. Kansas State Research and

Extension Annual Conference, Manhattan, KS.

Alexander, K. A. and M. R. Whiles. 1998. A new species of

Ironoquia

Banks (Trichoptera:

Limnephilidae) from backwaters ofthe central Platte River, Nebraska. North American

Prairie Conference, Kearney, NE.

Dinsmore, S., M. R. Whiles, and R. Roberts. 1997. Use ofbioassessment for identification of

stream reaches contributing to eutrophication ofa northeastNebraska reservoir. Annual

meetings ofthe Southwestern Association ofNaturalists, Fayetteville, Arkansas.

Dinsmore, S., M. R. Whiles, and R. Roberts. 1996. Biological and chemical analysis of

agriculturally impacted streams in northeastNebraska. 31st regional meetings ofthe

American Chemical Society, Sioux Falls, SD.

Whiles, M. R. 1993. Secondary production in a headwater stream during wet and dry years.

Annual meetings ofthe Coweeta LTER site, Athens, Georgia.

Whiles, M. R. and K. L. Hooker 1987. Subterranean invertebrates from an artesian spring on

Konza Prairie. Annual meeting of the NA Benthological Soc., Orono, Maine.

GRANT REVIEWER

NSF, USDA, USEPA, USGS-BRD, Illinois Groundwater Consortium (IGC)

EPA STAR Fellowships, invited review panel member (2002)

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BOOK REVIEWER

Fundamentals of Ecology, 5th ed., E. P. Odum and G. Barrett

Ecology, Concepts and Applications, 2’~ed., M. C. Molles

Freshwater Ecology, W. K. Dodds

MANUSCRIPT REVIEWER

BioScience, Ecology, Ecological Applications, Limnology and Oceanography

Archiv furHydrobiologie, Journal of the North American Benthological Society

Environmental Management, Prairie Naturalist, American Entomologist

Environmental Entomology, Journal ofInsect Science, Journal ofEcology

Journal ofthe Kansas Entomological Society, Bulletin of Marine Science

Journal ofCave and Karst Studies, Wetlands, Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry,

New Zealand Journal ofMarine and Freshwater Research, Restoration Ecology

PROFESSIONAL SERVICE and MEMBERSHIPS

2002-03

Program Committee, North American Benthological Society

2002-03

Membership Director, American Water Resources Assoc., Illinois chapter

2000-

Entomological Society ofAmerica

1997-

Sigma Xi

1986-

North American Benthological Society