RECEIVED
BEFORE THE ILLINOIS POLLUTION CONTROL BOA~WRK’S
OFFICE
IN THE MATTER OF:
)
APR
192004
)
STATE OF ILLINOiS
PROPOSED AMENDMENTS TO
)
R
04-
~
Pollution Control Board
DISSOLVED OXYGEN STANDARD
)
35
Iii. Adm. Code 302.206
)
NOTICE OF FILING
TO:
SEE ATTACHED SERVICE LIST
PLEASE
TAKE
NOTICE
that
on
Monday, April
19,
2004,
we
filed
the
attached
PROPOSED
RULE
AND
STATEMENT
OF
REASONS
with
the
Clerk
of the
Illinois
Pollution Control
Board,
a copy ofwhich is herewith served upon you.
Respectfully submitted,
ILLINOIS ASSOCIATION OF WASTEWATER
AGE
~
Roy M. Harsch
Sheila H. Deely
GARDNER, CARTON
&
DOUGLAS
191 N. Wacker Drive
-
Suite 3700
Chicago, Illinois
60606-1698
(312)
569-1440
CERTIFICATE OF SERVICE
The undersigned certifies that a copy ofthe foregoing
PROPOSED RULE
AND
STATEMENT OF REASONS
were filedby hand delivery with the Clerk ofthe Illinois Pollution
Control Board and
served
upon the
parties
to whom said Notice is directedby first class mail, postage
prepaid, by depositing in the U.S.
Mail at 191 North Wacker Drive, Chicago, Illinois on Monday, April
19, 2004.
Division ofLegal Counsel
Illinois
Environmental Protection Agency
1021 North Grand Avenue
P.O. Box
19276
Springfield,
Illinois
62794-9276
Office ofLegal Services
Illinois Department of
Natural
Resources
One Natural Resources Way
Springfield, Illinois
62702-1271
Division ChiefofEnvironmental Enforcement
Office of the Attorney General
188
W. Randolph St.,
20th
F!.
Chicago, Illinois
60601
Sheila H. Deely
CHO2/ 22306559.1
RECEIVED
CLERK’S OFFICE
BEFORE THE ILLINOIS POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD
APR
192004
STATE OF ILLINOIS
IN THE
MATTER OF:
)
Pollution
Control Board
)
PROPOSED AMENDMENTS TO
)
R 04-
?
DISSOLVED OXYGEN STANDARD
)
35 Iii. Adm. Code 302.206
)
PROPOSED RULE AND STATEMENT OF REASONS
The Illinois Association ofWastewater Agencies (“IAWA”), by its
attorneys Gardner
Carton & Douglas, and pursuant to
35
Ii. Adm.
Code
102.200, submits this Proposed Rule and
Statement ofReasons in
support ofits proposal to revise the regulation establishing water quality
standards for dissolved oxygen.
IAWA
is proposing changes to regulations governing dissolved oxygen based on the
current United States Environmental Protection Agency’s National
Criteria Document (“NCD”)
for Dissolved Oxygen (1986), which post-dates the current dissolved oxygen standard adopted
by the Illinois Pollution Control Board (“Board”) in
1972.
The NCD is intended to provide
guidance
to States and Tribes authorized to establish water quality standards under the Clean
Water Act (“CWA”).
The Proposed Rule is attached as Exhibit
1.
IAWA has also undertaken a recent study and review ofscientific literature,
which was
performed by Dr. James E.
Garvey and Dr. Matt R. Whiles of Southern Illinois
University.
This study,
An Assessment ofNational and
Illinois Dissolved Oxygen Water Quality Criteria
(“Assessment”, attached as Exhibit 2), concludes that the existing dissolved oxygen standard is
overly restrictive and should be modified based on published research on natural fluctuations in
aquatic systems and physiological tolerances ofnative aquatic life.
The regulatory proposal to
amend the dissolved oxygen rules is submitted contemporaneously with this Statement of
Reasons.
1.
Existing
and Proposed Dissolved Oxygen Regulations (Section 102.202(a))
Illinois has three standards governing dissolved oxygen in Illinois
waters.
Those
standards govern
general use waters (Section 302.206), Lake Michigan (Section
302.501),
and
secondary contact waters (Section
302.405).
It is the general use standard at Section 302.206
that this rulemaking seeks to
revise.
This standard currently reads as follows:
Section 302.206
Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved
oxygen
(STORET
number 00300)
shall not
be
less
than
6.0
mgI!
during
at
least
16 hours of any 24 hour period, nor less than
5.0
mgI!
at any time.
The proposed revision to
this regulation would incorporate the use ofdiurnal oxygen minima and
establish both daily minimum and seven day standards.
A more stringent standard would be
applicable during the cool water spawning period of July through February when the egg,
embryos and larval stages ofhypoxia-sensitive fish species are present in Illinois waters.
A less
stringent standard during the remaining months of March through June would incorporate the use
ofdiurnal oxygen minima, when the egg, embryos, and larval stages ofhypoxia intolerant fish
species are absent.
This structure is consistent with the NCD.
A proposed rule showing the changes from the Board’s existing dissolved oxygen
standard at Section
3 02.206
is attached to this Petition as Exhibit
1.
While the NCD also has a
thirty day standard, JAWA does not believe that this
standard is necessary to protect aquatic life.
In most cases, meeting the applicable seven day standard would ensure that any thirty day
standard would also be met.
2
An explanation ofthe standard, consistent with the NCD, is as follows:
a.
During the months of July through February, the standard would
establish a
standard one
day minimum concentration of3.5 mgIL, and
a seven day mean minimum
of4.0 mgIL.
The mean minimum
is defined as the average ofthe minimum daily
recorded dissolved oxygen concentrations and should be based
on a data recorder or
representative grab samples.
b.
During the months ofMarch through June, the standard would establish a one-day
minimum dissolved oxygen concentration of5.0 mgIL, and
a seven day mean of6.0
mgIL.
The mean is defined as the average ofthe daily average value and should be based
on data collected by semi-continuous data loggers or estimated from the representative
daily maxima and minima values.
With the structure ofthis proposed standard, more extensive DO monitoring will be
required than with the existing standard.
Currently, the majority of monitoring to determine
compliance with the DO standard is conducted
with grab samples.
The monitoring requirements,
which will be set in Illinois EPA’s implementation rules,
may require use ofcontinuous
monitors.
The implementation rules should be consistent with the recommendations
found in the
Assessment.
2.
Statement of Reasons
a.
Statement ofFacts
(Section 102.202(b))
Dissolved oxygen is a critical resource in
freshwater systems.
It is
essential to aquatic
organisms for aerobic respiration and
thus most biological activity and associated processes.
The
amount ofdissolved oxygen in freshwater habitats that is available to organisms is a function of
many biotic and abiotic factors, including metabolic processes (photosynthesis and respiration),
3
temperature, salinity, atmospheric water pressure, and
diffusion.
Depending on these physical
and biological factors, dissolved oxygen in
freshwater habitats can range from near zero to
supersaturated.
Because dissolved oxygen is essential to
aquatic life, and because levels can be greatly
influenced by human activities but are also relatively easy to
monitor, regulatory agencies have
directed many standards at ensuring the presence ofadequate dissolved oxygen in waterways.
There have been a variety ofefforts
to develop specific criteria for dissolved oxygen in aquatic
systems.
Studies that have addressed oxygen include the one by the Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration in
1968, the National Academy ofSciences and National
Academy of
Engineering in
1972, and Magnuson et al.
1979.
The NCD for dissolved oxygen was based
on
this
past work.
Illinois’
standards applicable to dissolved oxygen have been in place since their initial
adoption by the Board in 1972 and have not been updated since then.
In the Matter ofEffluent
Criteria, In the Matter of Water Quality Standards, In the Matter of Water Quality Standards
Revisionsfor Intrastate
Waters,
R 70-8, R71-14, R 71-20 (Jan. 6,
1972).
The standard that was
set reflected the general practice at this time ofsetting minimum concentrations.
The current
Illinois standard does not incorporate natural cycling in dissolved oxygen nor is it based on the
most recent
scientific information concerning responses ofaquatic life to
hypoxic conditions.
It
is unduly restrictive and inflexible in a way that is not reflected in the NCD.
The CWA requires states to revise water quality standards within three years ofU.S.
EPA’s adoption ofnew criteria.
33
U.S.C.
§
1313(c).
The Illinois standard has not been
addressed since the 1970s, and has not been revised to reflect the U.S. EPA’s NCD issued
1986.
4
This proposal is predicated on the need for a new standard to
bring Illinois in line with federal
guidance and the latest scientific data on dissolved oxygen.
b.
Purpose and
Effect of the Proposal (Section 102.202(b))
The general use water quality standard at issue in this regulation is central to many other
regulatory programs.
It is a basis for listing of impaired waterbodies and thus for the
requirement that
a Total Maximum Daily Load by developed for those impaired waterways;
it is
the source of the focus on discharges ofnutrients,
forwhich Illinois EPA has convened a work
group to
formulate standards;
and for one nutrient, phosphorus, dissolved oxygen is the basis for
the anticipated development ofan interim standard to be proposed by Illinois EPA.
Because of
the widespread implications ofthe dissolved oxygen standard, it is imperative for the standard to
be valid,
based on scientific dataand
verifiable evidence.
This is currently not the case with the
existing Illinois general use standard for dissolved oxygen.
JAWA has therefore taken it upon
itself to do the necessary scientific investigation
and propose a scientifically defensible standard.
JAWA asked Dr. James E.
Garvey and Dr. Matt R.
Whiles to undertake the literature
search
and data review ofthe effect of dissolved oxygen
levels on fish species in Illinois.
Dr.
Garvey and Dr. Whiles are professors in the Department of Zoology, Fisheries and
Illinois
Aquaculture Center ofSouthern Illinois University.
Dr. Garvey and Dr. Whiles are aquatic
ecologists, and among other expertise, are recognized experts on fish species in Illinois and the
effect of water quality on those fishes.
Dr. Whiles is a recognized expert in macroinvertebrates.
Dr.
Garvey, who will testify in this matter, is a PhD in zoology.
His colleague and co-author of
the Assessment, Dr. Whiles, is
a PhD in ecology.
Both Dr. Garvey and Dr. Whiles have
authored and presented numerous technical reports in their field.
5
Prior to undertaking this work, Mr. John Michael Callahan, Director ofthe Bloomington
and Normal Water Reclamation District, acting on behalfofL&WA, and Dr. Matt Whiles met
with members of Illinois EPA’s technical staff in the Bureau ofWater to
discuss the proposed
study and obtain Illinois EPA’s guidance as to
how it should be
carried out.
Dr. Garvey also
conferred with and obtained comments from the Illinois Department ofNatural Resources, which
were generally supportive.
In completing the Assessment, Dr. Garvey and Dr. Whiles studied the nature ofthe water
systems in Illinois which, with the exception ofLake Michigan, are dominated by warmwater
systems.
The Assessment examined the warmwaterorganisms and the effect ofdissolved
oxygen on those systems, including fish responses to
oxygen stress, macroinvertebrate responses
to oxygen stress, as well as environmental variation in dissolved oxygen.
The Assessment also reviewed the literature on dissolved oxygen, including the NCD.
The NCD made recommendations that are separated for coldwater fishes and wannwater fishes,
and further separated these for early life stages and other life stages.
The NCD’s two-
concentration structure for periods when early life stages sensitive to dissolved oxygen are either
present or absent recognizes that natural fluctuations in dissolved oxygen do occur, and
consequently a regulatory structure that accounts for the early life sensitivity is adequately
protective ofaquatic life.
The NCD reflects dissolved oxygen levels that are
0.5
mgIL above
those that would be expected to result in slight impairment ofproduction, thus representing
values between no impairment
and slight impairment.
c.
Affected Sources and Facilities (Section 102.202(b))
The sources that will be primarily affected by this rule are wastewater dischargers that
discharge an oxygen depleting substance, including biological oxygen demand (BOD) and
6
nutrients.
Those dischargers are primarily entities responsible for wastewater treatment,
including publicly owned treatment works and industrial dischargers,
and agricultural point and
non-point sources.
IAWA represents approximately 98 members, including POTWs and
municipal interests and other governmental and private organizations with an interest in
wastewater issues.
3.
Testimony
to Be Presented at Hearing (Section
102.202(c))
IAWA intends to offer the testimony ofits expert, Dr. James
Garvey, to discuss the work he
performed with his colleague Dr. Matt Whiles for the Assessment, including how they
determined the season specific designations and the sensitivity oforganisms to dissolved oxygen
levels.
JAWA will also
offer the testimony ofDennis Streicher, the Director ofWater and
Wastewater for the City ofElmhurst, concerning the development ofthis rulemaking, and the
economic and technical necessity for IAWA’s members ofrevision to
the dissolved oxygen
rules.
Finally, IAWA will offer the testimony ofJohn Michael Callahan, the Executive Director
ofthe Bloomington and Normal Water Reclamation District, as well as the Chair ofthe Nutrient
Technical Committee for IAWA.
Mr. Callahan will also testify as to
the economic and technical
necessity for this rulemaking.
4.
Petition (Section 102.202(d))
IAWA is
moving contemporaneously with submission of thisproposal to waive the
requirement that it submit a petition containing the signatures ofat least 200 persons.
5.
Proofof Service (Section
102.202(e))
IAWA has attached a certificate of service on all persons required to
be served pursuant
to Section
102.422.
7
~l.
Certification (Section 102.202(h))
IAWA has attached a certification that this proposal amends the most recent version
of
the rule as published on the Board’s website.
R
fully Submitted,
One ofthe A
orneys for Petitioner
Roy M. Harsch
Sheila H. Deely
GARDNER, CARTON & DOUGLAS
321
N. Clark Street
Suite 3400
Chicago, IL
606 10-4795
Telephone:
(312) 644-3000
Facsimile:
(312) 644-3381
8
ni
-1-
-~
PROPOSED RULE
Section 302.206
Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen
(STORET number 00300) shall be
determined on
a monthly basis as
follows:
flot-be less than 6.0
mg/I. during at least
16 hours ofany 24 hour period, nor less than
5.0
mg/L
at-any time
a.
During the months ofJuly through February, dissolved oxygen shall not be less than a
one day minimum concentration of 3.5 mg/U, and a seven day mean minimum of 4.0 mg/L.
The
mean minimum is defined as the average ofthe minimum daily recorded dissolved
oxygen
concentrations and should be based on a data recorder or representative
grab samples.
b.
During the months ofMarch through June, dissolved
oxygen shall not be
less than a one-
day minimum dissolved
oxygen concentration of
5.0
mgIL. and a seven day mean of6.0 mg/L.
The mean is defined as the average ofthe daily average value and
should be based on data
collected by semi-continuous data loggers or estimated from the representative daily maxima and
minima values.
ni
NO
1
An Assessment of National and Illinois Dissolved Oxygen
Water Quality
Criteria
Prepared by:
James B. Garvey”2 and Matt R.
Whiles’
‘Department of Zoology
2Fisheries and
Illinois Aquaculture Center
Southern Illinois University
Carbondale, IL 62901
For:
Illinois Association ofWastewater Agencies
April 2004
2
Executive Summaiy
Dissolved oxygen is an important limiting resource in aquatic systems and is directly
affected by human activities such as organic enrichment, increased nutrient
loading, and
habitat alteration.
We reviewed the published literature
on responses ofwarmwater
freshwater systems to
dynamics ofdissolved oxygen and then assessed current Illinois
and national water quality standards in light ofthese findings.
For fish, aquatic insects,
freshwater mussels, and other organisms typically found in warmwater surface waters of
Illinois,
reduced dissolved oxygen has long been understood to inhibit growth, survival,
and reproduction, primarily by interfering with aerobic metabolism.
More recently, low
dissolved oxygen has been suggested to
act as an endocrine disruptor in fish, reducing
reproductive viability.
Dissolved oxygen concentrations vary widely both among and
within natural streams and lakes, although mean and minimum concentrations should
decline with organic enrichment.
In systems with low oxygen minima, only organisms
specifically adapted to hypoxic conditions should persist.
Our assessment ofthe published data generally affirms the guidelines set
forth for
warmwater assemblages by the
1986 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s national
dissolved oxygen water quality standards document.
The current emphasis in Illinois on
biotic indicators for assessing the integrity ofstreams and lakes should be continued and
continually refined in our view.
Conversely, the current dissolved oxygen water quality
standard set by the Illinois Pollution Control Board (minimum of 5.0 mgIL)
is too
conservative and may place many aquatic systems with naturally occurring dissolved
3
oxygen concentrations that occasionally decline below the state minimum standard
in
violation.
This document recommends a standard that includes seasonally appropriate
means
and minima that more realistically account for natural
fluctuations in dissolved
oxygen concentrations, while remaining sufficiently protective ofaquatic life and life
stages.
In general, our recommended standards are either equivalent to or more
conservative than the established national dissolved oxygen standards.
We recommend for surface waters in Illinois (not including Lake Michigan or wetlands;
also seeTable 5):
•
A 1-day minimum of5.0 mgIL
spring through early summer (i.e., March
1
through June 30)
•
A 7-d mean of6.0 mgIL spring through early summer (i.e., March
1
through June
30)
•
A
1-d minimum of 3.5 mgIL the remainder ofthe year (i.e., July
1
through
February 28 or 29)
•
A 7-d mean minimum of4.0
mgIL the remainder ofthe year (i.e., July
1
through
February 28 or 29)
•
Areas in proximity to discharges in which dissolved
oxygen concentrations can be
manipulated should be monitored closely, with daily minima occurring no more
than 3 weeks per year, not including spring through early summer (i.e., March
1
through June 30), orthe
1-d minimum be increased to 4.0 mg/L
4
A 1-day minimum dissolved oxygen concentration
is the lowest
allowable concentration
during any given day.
A 7-day mean is derived by generating time-weighted daily
averages (including the daily minimum and maximum) and then determining a running
average across 7 days.
Maximum water concentrations that exceed air saturation should
be corrected (i.e., decreased) to
air saturation values.
Seven-day mean minima are
calculated by generating a running mean ofdaily minima across 7 days.
Seasons reflect times when most early life stages of warmwater fishes (i.e., eggs,
embryos,
and
larvae, typically 30-d post spawning) are either present (March through
June) or absent (July through February) in Illinois waters (see Table 3).
Warmwater
species that spawn later during summer should have adaptations fornaturally occurring
reductions in dissolved oxygen concentrations expected to occur during warm months.
Our review ofthe literature revealed that many gaps in our knowledge persist about
relations among die! oxygen curves, nutrient status, and primary production.
Mechanistic
research rather than correlational field studies must be conducted to develop more precise
and meaningful criteria for dissolved oxygen and
other water quality measures.
Similarly, our understanding ofbiological responses to oxygen dynamics is typically
correlational.
Laboratory-derived, physiological tolerance estimates rarely correspond
well to field patterns.
Improved criteria that are relevant on a regional and habitat-
specific basis will require a better understanding ofhow organisms respond to
experimentally manipulated variables in natural systems.
5
Table ofContents
Section
Page
Executive Summary
2
Overview
6
Oxygen in Freshwater
Anthropogenic Influences
7
Oxygen and Monitoring
7
Overview ofNational and Illinois Criteria
S
Systems in Illinois
9
Warmwater Responses
10
Fish
14
Macroinvertebrates
19
Environmental Variation in Oxygen
.22
Guidelines
..
27
National
.~.
...
.~..
27
Illinois
30
Assessments and Recommendations
35
Spring through Early Summer
36
Other Months
Other Considerations
37
Gaps and Future Directions
....
.
.
~42
Literature
Cited
~.
Table
1
~~54
Table2
Table3
~~56
Table
4
~58
Table
5
~~59
Figure
1
Figure 2
6
Overview
This document reviews the current literature on dissolved oxygen in natural systems and
the potential effects ofhypoxia (i.e., low dissolved oxygen concentrations) on aquatic
life.
It then evaluates the current Illinois dissolved oxygen water quality standard
(Illinois Pollution Control Board 302.206, 302.502) and the national criteria (Chapman
1986) in light ofthis information.
The final sections make recommendations for re-
evaluating and modifying current Illinois state water quality criteria that are based on
published research on natural fluctuations in aquatic systems and physiological tolerances
ofnative aquatic life.
We conclude
with recommendations forresearch that, in our view,
will improve the scientific foundation underlying dissolved
oxygen criteria for freshwater
systems in Illinois.
Oxygen in freshwater habitats
Dissolved oxygen is a critical resource in
freshwater systems because it is essential to
aquatic organisms for aerobic respiration, and thus most biological activity and associated
processes.
Further, because ofoxygen’s low solubility
in water, it is less abundant, and
thus more limiting,
in aquatic habitats compared to terrestrial habitats.
The amount of
dissolved oxygen in freshwater habitats that
is available to organisms is a function of
many biotic and abiotic factors including metabolic processes (photosynthesis and
respiration), temperature, salinity, atmospheric and water pressure, and diffusion.
Dissolved oxygen that
is available to aquatic biota
is generally measured and expressed
as mg/I. or percentage saturation.
Depending on the array ofaforementioned physical
7
and biological factors, dissolved oxygen levels in natural freshwater habitats can range
from near zero (anoxic or anaerobic conditions) to
supersaturated.
Anthropogenic influences on
oxygen in freshwater habitats
Along with the myriad natural process that influence dissolved oxygen levels in
freshwater habitats, many human activities can have profound effects.
In particular, the
addition ofnutrients
(nutrient enrichment and
eutrophication) leads to reduced oxygen
concentrations because ofincreased productivity and biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD).
Numerous other types ofpollution (e.g.,
sediments, thermal discharges,
pesticides) and other types of anthropogenic disturbances (e.g., stream channelization,
catchment logging) can influence oxygen levels because they influence the combination
ofbiotic
and abiotic factors that
control it.
Oxygen depletion as a result ofeutrophication
receives most attention because this is a prevalent prohiem associated with human
activities (e.g., sewage effluent,
agricultural activities, urbanization) that is often linked to
reduced water quality and the loss and degradation ofnatural resources such as fisheries
(Cooper 1993).
Eutrophication has also received much recent attention because of
related large-scale issues such as the hypoxic zone in the GulfofMexico, which has been
linked to elevated nutrient loads
in the Mississippi River and its
tributaries (Rabalais et
a!. 2002).
Dissolved oxygen and water quality monitoring
Given that (i)
oxygen is a crucial, limiting resource to
life in freshwater habitats, (ii)
human activities
have greatpotential to
influence it, and (iii) it is relatively easy to
8
monitor,
regulatory agencies logically focus on dissolved oxygen levels for setting water
quality standards
and monitoring conditions.
Most frequently,
associated monitoring
activities focus on daily minimum levels (often quantified pre-dawn) or averages over a
period of time.
Although there is general agreement that dissolved oxygen levels are an
important component ofwater quality standards and monitoring activities, it is less
clear
how standards for given regions and habitats should
be set and
how violations ofthese
standards are assessed (e.g., daily minimums vs. weekly averages vs. dynamics ofdie!
oscillations).
More recently, biological communities, usually fish and/or
macroinvertebrate assemblages (e.g., biomonitoring), have become increasingly
important components of surface water monitoring programs because they integrate and
reflect the conditions within the habitat, including, among otherthings, oxygen levels and
the factors that
influence them (Plafkin et al.
1989, Loeb and Spacie 1993, Barbour et al.
1999).
National and State Criteria
Because oxygen is typically the primary factor limiting
aquatic life, several attempts have
been made to
develop specific criteria in aquatic systems (Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration 1968, National Academy ofSciences and National Academy of
Engineering 1972, Magnuson et al.
1979a).
The current USEPA national standard for
dissolved
oxygen (Chapman 1986) was built on this past work.
The national criteria
document
adopts a two-concentration structure with both a mean and
a minimum and
includes specific criteria for both cool-water and warm-water systems.
9
The Illinois dissolved oxygen criterion used at present was established by the Illinois
Pollution Control Board three decades ago in the early 1970s (R. Mosher, Illinois EPA,
Division ofWater Pollution Control, Standards Section,
personal communication).
It is
based on a simple minimum allowable dissolved oxygen concentration.
Setting such
minima was common practice for establishing contaminant loads
in the early regulatory
setting following passage ofthe Clean Water Act (Chapman 1986).
The current Illinois
criterion, based on these early decisions, does not incorporate natural cycling in
dissolved
oxygen nor is it supported by the most recent scientific information on responses of
aquatic life to
hypoxic conditions.
Systems in Illinois
With the exception of the Lake Michigan system, most inland waters in Illinois
are
dominated by warmwater, non-salmonid fauna! assemblages.
Although the term
warmwaterhas been used for decades, a formal definition is still lacking (but see
Magnuson et a!.
1979b).
In this document, warmwater systems are defined as those that
are typically diverse, centrarchid-dominated, and common in the Midwestern and
southern United States (Magnuson et al.
1 979b).
Fishes in
these systems can be quite
tolerant ofat least temporary periods oflow dissolved oxygen (Chapman 1986, Smale
and Rabeni
1 995a), although certain species such as smallmouth bass
(Micropterus
dolomieu)
are more sensitive.
Since the national criterion for dissolved oxygen was developed,
fish continue to be
emphasized because of their commercial and recreational importance.
Some
10
macroinvertebrates, such as burrowing mayflies
(Hexagenia
spp.) and freshwater mussels
(Li-Yen
1998), are far less tolerant ofprolonged exposure to hypoxic conditions than
most fish
(Chapman 1986, Winter et a!.
1996, Corkum et al.
1997).
However, this may
be expected because many sensitive macroinvertebrate species occupy pristine, well-
oxygenated benthic habitats or are riffle-dwelling.
Riffles have a high dissolved oxygen
flux and organisms persisting in these environments might be expected to
have high
oxygen requirements.
Assessments ofaquatic life responses to hypoxic conditions need
to account for the physiological, behavioral, and life history adaptations ofthe resident
organisms in the context oftheir natural environment.
When developing oxygen criteria,
how natural cycles in dissolved oxygen structure warmwater assemblages must be
considered.
Warinwater Organisms and Dissolved Oxygen
Setting a dissolved oxygen criterion for aquatic systems that is adequately protective to
aquatic life is challenging because ofthe wide adaptations that exist among organisms.
In warmwater systems, the richness and abundance ofspecies within aquatic systems can
often be explained by variation in dissolved oxygen, because only the most tolerant
species can persist in systems with frequent or chronic hypoxia.
An extensive survey of
Missouri streams revealed that low oxygen, rather thanhigh temperature, is the primary
factor limiting fish distributions (Smale and Rabeni 1995a,b).
Increases in the dissolved
oxygen concentration and general improvement in
water quality ofthe western basin of
Lake Erie are largely responsible for improved fish and benthic macroinvertebrate
communities
(Ludsin et al. 2001).
Similar improvements in fish communities occurred in
11
Swedish streams when dissolved oxygen increased and water quality improved across a
thirty-year period (Eklov et al.
1998, 1999).
Many physiological responses within aquatic organisms
occur to ensure survival under
hypoxic conditions.
Many species will initially increase ventilation to increase the
exchange ofoxygen across the respiratory surface
(e.g., gills; Beamish
1964, Fernandes
et a!.
1995,
MacCormick et a!. 2003).
Tolerance to hypoxia is ultimately affected by the
capacity of blood to uptake and
transport oxygen.
Furmisky et a!. (2003) found a marked
difference in
blood oxygen content oflargemouth bass and smallmouth bass
(M
salmoides)
under hypoxia.
Largemouth bass blood had a higher affinity for oxygen than
that ofsmallmouth bass.
Further,
smallmouth bass blood contained eleyated
concentrations ofcatecholamines, stress hormones that initiate
a number ofphysiological
mechanisms
that increase blood oxygen transport.
In contrast to species that actively
regulate oxygen concentration, other species exposed
to hypoxia, typically those that are
relatively inactive in benthic habitats, will reduce activity and metabolism, thereby
decreasing oxygen demand of tissues (Crocker and Cech 1997, Hagerman 1998).
Some
organisms rely on anaerobic glycolysis and
other anaerobic biochemical pathways
to fuel
their metabolism during temporary hypoxia (e.g., common carp, freshwater mussels),
although the typical adaptation in habitats with chronically low dissolved oxygen
concentrations appears to be aerobic metabolism plus efficient oxygen uptake rather than
anaerobic metabolism (Childress and Siebel
1998, Wu 2002).
When determining the
dissolved oxygen criteria for a suite of systems, the interaction between physiological
adaptations and natural environmental dissolved oxygen cycles must be considered.
12
Aquatic organisms
will also
respond behaviorally to
low dissolved oxygen in the
environment.
Organisms usually move away from
areas oflow oxygen to those ofhigher
concentrations when oxygen concentrations are locally heterogeneous.
This may most
commonly occurin vegetated areas of lake littoral zones in which oxygen concentrations
vary both horizontally and vertically, with areas oflow and high oxygen adjacent to each
other (Miranda et a!. 2000).
Other organisms such as some stream fishes and amphipods
use the air-water interface when dissolved oxygen levels are low (Henry and Danielopol
1998).
Some invertebrate and
vertebrate species must trade-off the use ofhypoxic areas
with the risk ofoccupying other normoxic areas that may have a greater risk ofpredation
or lower food availability (Burleson et al. 2001).
This has been well documented for
zoop!ankton and
Chaoborus
using the hypoxic hypolimnion oflakes as a refuge from
predators (Tessier and Welser 1991,
Popp and Hoagland
1994, Rahel and Nutzman
1995,
Dawidowicz et a!. 2001).
More recentlyhypoxic areas have been shown to be important
for small fish
evading predators (Chapman et al.
1996, Miranda and Hodges 2000,
Burleson et a!.
2001) or using these areas to
forage (Rahel and Nutzman 1995).
Chapman (1986) found that the early life stages (e.g., eggs and larvae) ofaquatic
organisms are the most sensitive to hypoxia.
For many ofthese organisms, much
exchange ofoxygen occurs cutaneously (Jobling
1995)
and thus
is not expected to be
well-regulated.
After the oxygen regulating structures such as gills are formed, the
ability to regulate oxygen and thus tolerate hypoxia should improve, with the structure of
gills and associated respiratory behavior reflecting species-specific oxygen demands and
13
naturally occurring oxygen concentrations (Jobling
1995).
In fresh, warm-water systems
such as those in Illinois, many benthic areas where fish may deposit eggs in nests can
become hypoxic or anoxic.
The behavior ofnest tending and
fanning in adults increases
the oxygen available to
eggs and embryos, offsetting the effect oflow oxygen (Hale et al.
2003).
Other species in these systems have adaptations that allow their eggs and larvae to
avoid anoxic sediments including semibuoyant eggs (e.g., asian carps) or adhesive eggs
that attach to vegetation (e.g., northern pike, yellow perch).
Riffle-dwelling or gravel-
spawning species rely on rapid exchange ofwater to keep eggs oxygenated
(Corbett and
Powles 1986).
How these adaptations allow aquatic species to cope with natural cycles
and spatial heterogeneity ofdissolved oxygen must be considered when developing
specific criteria.
Because most species in Illinois spawn in
spring when flow rates are
high and temperature-induced hypoxia is low, seasonal fluctuations in dissolved oxygen
must also be factored into the evaluation ofdissolved
oxygen criteria for Illinois.
Chapman (1986) pointed out that very few investigators have used conventional toxicity
tests to
generate LC5Os orEC5Os and thus find critical dissolved oxygen concentrations
of aquatic organisms.
With a few rare exceptions (i.e., Nebeker et a!.
1992), this has not
changed since
1986. Additionally, no
standardized method for conducting acute tests
with dissolved oxygen yet exists.
As a consequence, duration and intensity of
acclimation and exposure to hypoxic conditions differ among studies.
Oxygen control in
studies is typically achieved either by vacuum degassing or nitrogen stripping, which
may elicit different physiological responses.
Acute effects ofhypoxia have often been
quantified as an interaction with other factors such as contaminants, temperature, and
14
food availability.
For sublethal tests, effects have been quantified as impairment of
behavior, reproduction, or growth.
Chronic tests in the published literature are rarer than
acute ones, and are assumed to include the most sensitive life stages.
Because most
dissolved oxygen tests fail to include a full life cycle or, at the least, embryonic through
larval stages, these tests fall short in assessing chronic effects (but see Nebeker et a!.
1992).
In the field, hypoxia often only occurs temporarily because dissolved oxygen.
concentrations fluctuate daily.
Hence, quantifying recovery upon return to
normoxia may
also be an important requisite for standardized testing
(Person-Le Ruyet 2003).
Fish Responses
to Oxygen Stress
Most ofthe studies quantifying critical dissolved oxygen minima for warmwater fish
species (i.e., nonsalmonids) in Illinois predate the 1990s.
A review ofthese studies
revealed that
adults and juveniles ofmost species survive dissolved oxygen
concentrations that occasionally decline below
3 mg/l (Chapman 1986).
Higher
temperatures generally increase the critical dissolved oxygen concentration necessary for
survival.
Manywarmwater species can survive prolonged periods oflow dissolved
oxygen concentrations (Downing and Merkens
1957, Moss and Scott 1961,
Smale and
Rabeni 1995a,b).
Smale and Rabeni (1995a) determined critical oxygen minima for 35
fish species that inhabit small warmwater streams (Table 1).
These critical
concentrations, defined as the oxygen concentration atwhich ventilation ceased, ranged
from 0.49 mg/l to
1.5
mg/L (Table
1; Smale and Rabeni
1995a).
The current national
1-
day minimum dissolved oxygen
criterion for adult life stages is
3 mg/L (Chapman 1986;
Table 2).
With the exception of the oxygen minima set by Smale
and Rabeni (1985a) and
15
tested in Smale and Rabeni
(1995b),
no studies to our knowledge have explicitly
determined how the criteria set forth by the Illinois Pollution Control Board or the US
EPA national water quality document
translate to field distributions of fish.
Smale and
Rabeni’s work suggest that the current 1-day minimum set by the national criterion for
warmwater fish
is sufficiently protective of stream fish assemblages.
Because early life stages are typically more sensitive, separate national dissolved oxygen
criteria have been set for them (Table 2; Chapman 1986).
An in situ test ofthe effect of
dissolved oxygen concentration on survival ofembryonic and larval bluegill, northern
pike, pumpkinseed, and smailmouth bass was conducted at spawning sites in Minnesota
(Peterka and Kent 1976).
The investigators found that tolerance of short-term exposure
to
hypoxia declined from embryonic to
larval stages.
Upon transforming to larvae, many
fishes become free-swimming and join the open-water ichthyoplankton..
Hence, some
larvae departing potentially hypoxic benthic
spawning areas may no longer require high
tolerance oflow dissolved oxygen concentrations under natural conditions.
Conversely,
other species with benthic larvae
(e.g., lampreys) should be quite sensitive to chronic low
oxygen at the substrate-water interface.
To
find tolerance for dissolved oxygen, we digitized embryonic and larval survival data
from Figure
1 in Chapman (1986).
We then subjected the data for Chapman’s “tolerant”
warmwater species (largemouth bass, black crappie, white sucker,
and white bass) and
“intolerant” species (northern pike, channel catfish, walleye, and smalimouth bass) to two
sets ofanalyses, both ofwhich are designed to
isolate an “inflection” point in the curves
16
ofdissolved
oxygen concentration versus percent survival (relative to
controls).
The
nature ofthe data did not allow us to conduct a probit analysis widelyused in toxicology.
Rather, in the first analysis, we used non-linear regression to fit the best models to
the
tolerant (Michealis-Mentin) and intolerant (logistic) species data.
A second analysis was
used to identify the point ofmajor change in the distributions
forboth tolerant and
intolerant fishes.
This two-dimensional Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (2DKS) has been used
successfully for finding major breakpoints in bivariate data, for example when survival
changes from consistently high to variable beyond or below some threshold contaminant
concentration (Garvey et al.
1998a).
For the non-linear regression analysis, the curves fit the datamoderately well (Figure
1).
The half-saturation dissolved oxygen concentration (similar to an LC5O
value) for the
tolerant species was 2.8~mg/l.For the intolerant species, the dissolved oxygen
concentration at which 50
survival occurred was much higher at 4.3 mg/I..
In the
2DKS
analysis, the threshold dissolved oxygen concentrations were 3.72 and 3.75 mg/L
for the tolerant and intolerant distributions, respectively, suggesting that survival offish
varied below these values and was consistently high above them.
A conservative
interpretation is that intolerant embryos and larvae are indeed more sensitive to low
oxygen concentrations and that survival should begin to
decline below 4.3
mg/L.
Early
life stages oftolerant species should only begin to
show survival effects below 3.7 mg/L.
Sublethal effects of low dissolved oxygen on growth are likely more common than direct
lethal ones.
Thus, carefully quantifying sublethal effects is an important requisite for
17
setting criteria for fish and
other organisms.
Low dissolved oxygen concentrations can
reduce growth by reducing foraging behavior and increasing metabolic costs.
A review
conducted by JRB Associates (1984) summarized growth responses ofnorthern pike,
largemouth bass, channel catfish, and yellow perch to reduced dissolved oxygen
concentrations (data sources:
Stewart et a!.
1967,
Adelman and Smith 1972,
Carlson et
al.
1980).
For northern pike, growth declined from
16
to
25
between
5
and 4 mg/I.,
with growth reduced by 35~at
the lowest concentration of3 mg/!.
Growth ofchannel
catfish declined from 7
to
13
between
5
and 4 mg/I., with a 29
reduction at 2 mg/L.
For largemouth bass and yellow perch, strong reductions in growth did not occur until
concentrations were 2 mg/I., with growth reduced by
51
for largemouth bass and 22
for yellow perch.
Extrapolating growth results from laboratory experiments to the field may be
problematic, primarily because of differences in food availability.
Although reduced
oxygen may reduce consumption,
fish
in
laboratory studies may have easy access to food
and thus not suffer the same impairment as counterparts in the field (Chapman 1986).
Chapman (1986) compared the data compiled byJRB Associates (1984)
to those of
Brake (1972) who conducted
a pond experiment exploring the effect ofreduced oxygen
on largemouth bass growth.
Brake found that growth oflargemouth bass was reduced by
as much as 34
at dissolved oxygen concentrations
(4-5
mg/I.) that had little effect in the
laboratory.
Similarly, RNA-DNA ratios (an index of growth where high RNA
concentrations relative to
DNA suggests rapid protein synthesis and growth) were higher
for bluegill under normoxic conditions than counterparts exposed to
hypoxic conditions
18
in the natural environment (Aday et al.
2000).
However, this effect ofhypoxia could not
be replicated under laboratory conditions (Aday et a!.
2000).
Clearly, field conditions,
including reduced food, changing temperatures, increased activity rates, and fluctuating
oxygen levels, need to be incorporated into studies quantifying the intermediate- and
long-term effects ofhypoxia on growth.
Few studies have quantified the effect ofreduced dissolved oxygen concentration on the
reproductive viability ofadult fish.
Recently, hypoxia has been shown to be an endocrine
disruptor, affecting fish reproductive success (Wu
et al. 2003).
Common carp exposed to
chronic hypoxia had reduced levels ofserum testosterone and
estradiol.
These reduced
levels led to decreased gonadal development in both males and females.
Spawning
success, sperm motility,
fertilization success, hatching rate, and larval survival were all
compromised through this mechanism.
Loss ofreproductive capacity through reduced
energy intake or increased metabolic costs has been the more typical mechanism
implicated.
For species in which adult behavior is important (e.g., nest guarding), adults
may abandon nests
or cease parental care below some threshold dissolved oxygen
concentration where physiological costs outweigh the benefit of successfully producing
offspring (Hale et al. 2003).
The timing and periodicity ofspawning should correspond with a host ofecological
factors including the availability offood, avoidance ofpredators,
and overlap with
optimum abiotic conditions (e.g., temperature and
oxygen concentration; Winemiller and
Rose
1992).
Obviously,
all of these conditions typically do not co-occur in time,
19
necessitating trade-offs for reproducing fish and other aquatic organisms.
The majority
ofwarmwater fishes in Illinois spawn during spring through early summer (i.e., as early
as March and as late as June; Table 3), largely because this
(i) allows young fish to
overlap with a spring pulse in primary production and (ii) provides enough time
during
the growing season for offspring to
become large and survive winter (Garvey et a!.
1 998b).
During spring, oxygen concentrations in most stream and lake systems should
not be expected to be
low, because the temperature-dependent oxygen capacity ofwater
is not limited,
lakes are typically unstratified and mixed, and seasonal production and
thus whole-system respiration has not yet peaked.
However, a few species do spawn
continuously through summer when natural oxygen-concentrations-maybe expected
to
fluctuate and may reach limiting levels.
Under these circumstances, fishes must have
adaptations to reproduce successfully including parental care (e.g., nest fanning), riffle-
dwelling offspring, or oxygen-tolerant eggs, embryos, and larvae.
-
Macroinvertebrate responses to
oxygen stress
Macroinvertebrate (typically larval stages ofaquatic insects and freshwater mussels)
responses to low oxygen situations have been characterized at the community,
-
population, and individual levels.
Macroinvertebrate communities and
assemblages in
habitats with low dissolved oxygen levels are generally dominated by taxa that breathe
atmospheric oxygen through respiratory tubes or the use oftransportable air stores (e.g.,
pulmonate gastropods, hemipterans, and many dipteran and coleopteran taxa) and/or
those with other adaptations such as some oligochaetes and
Chironomus
midges with
hemoglobin in theirblood (Hynes
1960, Wiederholm 1984).
Other tolerant taxa, such as
20
the fingernail clam
Pisidium,
can perform anaerobis and go through periods ofdormancy
(Hamburger et a!. 2000), and thus may also be
abundant in low oxygen environments.
In
contrast, taxa associated with highly oxygenated environments, such as many Plecoptera,
Ephemeroptera, and Trichopterataxa, which primarilyuse tracheal gills for respiration,
are usually underrepresented or absent in
oxygen-limited freshwater habitats.
These
patterns are the basis for numerous macroinvertebrate-based biomonitoring programs
-
because they are fairly consistent and reliable indicators of increasing organic pollution
and associated decreases in oxygen
availability, and can thus reflect overall system health
by integrating spatial and temporal conditions
associated with pollution and associated
oxygen stress (e.g., Hilsenhoff 1987, Hilsenhoff 1988, Lenat
1993, Barbour et a!.
1999).
Considering the incredible diversity offreshwater invertebrates, there is relatively little
information
regarding their oxygen requirements and tolerances.
As would be expected
for such a diverse group oforganisms, studies to date indicate that macroinvertebrate
responses to
oxygen stress at both the population and individual levels vary greatly.
Lethal effects are obvious and well documented for many taxa, particularly more
sensitive taxa such as members ofthe Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera (Fox
et a!.
1937,
Benedetto 1970, Nebeker 1972, Gaufin
1973).
These studies and others
(reviewed by Chapman 1986) indicate a range oflethal minima from 0.6
mg/L for the
midge
Tanytarsus
to 5.2 mg/L for an ephemerellid mayfly, and a dissolved oxygen 96-
hour I.C-50 concentration ofbetween 3-4 mg/L for about halfof all
insects examined.
Similarly, tolerance to
hypoxia ranges dramatically among freshwater mussels, a group
that is ofspecial concern because population declines are widespread and many species
21
are now threatened or endangered.
In laboratory
experiments, survival of
Villosa
spp., a
riffle-dwelling genus, was compromised under hypoxic conditions (2
mg/l), whereas no
negative survival effects occurred for other species such as
Elliptio
spp. and
Pyganodon
grandis
(Li-Yen
1998).
Many ofthese values must be considered within the context in
which they were obtained, as the most sensitive taxa often live in flowing water habitats
and diffusion ofoxygen into gills and other permeable surfaces is partly a function of
water velocity because it determines the replacement rate of water around the diffusion
surface.
Using closed recirculating systems, Sparks and Strayer (1998) examined
responses ofjuvenile
Elliptio complanata
to varying dissolved oxygen levels and found-a
sharp differences in behavior (e.g., gaping, siphon extending) between 2 and 4 mg/I., and
individuals exposed to concentrations of 1.3- mg/L for a week died.
Along with lethal effects, there are also important sublethal responses.
The most
commonly reported sublethal effect oflow oxygen levels on macroinvertebrates is
reduced growth.
Reduced growth rates occur because ofdecreased aerobic respiration
rates and the use ofenergy reserves, which would normally be used for growth and
reproduction, for body movements such as ventilating and/or other mechanisms for
increasing oxygen uptake (Fox and Sidney 1953, Erikson et
al.
1996).
Pesticides and
other toxicants, which are often present in polluted habitats where oxygen stress occurs,
can further reduce invertebrate tolerances to low oxygen conditions because they often
alter respiration rates themselves (e.g., Maki et al.
1973, Kapoor 1976).
For freshwater
mussels, the influence ofother factors including siltation, altered habitat, and loss offish
hosts for reproduction may interact with low dissolved oxygen concentrations to
reduce
-
22
growth and reproductive success (Watters 1999).
The consequences ofsublethal effects
such as reduced growth are important at the population level because adult female size is
positively correlated with fecundity in a variety ofinvertebrates (Vannote and Sweeney
1980, Sweeney and Vannote 1981).
-
Environmental variation in dissolved oxygen
Dissolved oxygen concentrations fluctuate in natural systems.
Even relatively pristine
systems may have spatial heterogeneity in oxygen concentrations that requires organisms
to move or tolerate occasional spates ofhypoxia.
Because hypoxia is
often a natural
-
phenomenon, most species have some
adaptations that
allow them to tolerate
occasionally low oxygen, while other species are specifically adapted to
occupy areas of
chronically low oxygen (e.g., profundal amphipods; Hamburger et al. 2000, MacNeil et
a!. 2001).
This
section explores factors influencing variation
in aquatic systems of
Illinois, with implications for the growth, survival, and reproductive success ofresident
organisms.
Most field studies exploring ecological effects ofdissolved oxygen correlate variation in
dissolved oxygen concentrations with the distributions of fish and other organisms.
Ifa
correlation occurs, then investigators infer that dissolved oxygen is the major factor
underlying observed distributions.
The most typical occurrence ofhypoxia in natural
freshwater systems arises in stratified lakes during
summer.
Hypolimnetic (lower strata)
waters oflakes often become depleted ofoxygen during this season, causing fish and
other organisms to
avoid these areas.
A project quantifying the vertical and horizontal
23
spatial distribution offishes in Lake ofEgypt, Illinois during summer through fall 2003
strongly demonstrated this pattern (Sherman and
Garvey, unpublished data).
Threadfin
shad, a species with a low tolerance to
hypoxia, and hybrid striped bass, a more tolerant
fish, were sampled with gill nets at three depths
in three locations ofthe lake.
Spatial
distribution of these species was affected by the presence ofhypoxic hypolimnetic water,
with consistently scarce abundance below 4 mg/I. dissolved oxygen (Figure 2).
This-
research confirms the long-held assumption that
an increase in hypoxic hypo!imnetic
water, expected to occur
in relatively shallow, eutrophic systems, should
severely restrict
habitat for fish and
other organisms (Nurnberg 1995a,b, 2002).
Combinations of
-
suboptimal warm temperatures and low oxygen during summer months can lead to
“summerkills” offish, particularly those species that have poor tolerance to
hypoxia (e.g.,
shad).
Although oxygen stratification is not prevalent during winter months,
“winterkills” offish may occur by the natural, biologically driven depletion of oxygen
under snow-covered ice in lakes (Klinger et al.
1982, Fang and Stefan 2000,
Danylchuk
and Tonri 2003).
This should be more typical in the northern portion ofIllinois where
winters are more severe.
Dissolved oxygen concentrations in streams canbe influenced by many natural
environmental factors.
Groundwater inundation ofstreams may provide cool
temperatures that are preferred by aquatic organisms such as fish during summer months
(Matthews and Berg
1997).
However, the tradeoffof seeking these waters may be that
they are severely depleted in oxygen (Matthews and Berg 1997).
Many streams undergo
a natural, often cyclic pattern offlooding and drying.
During stream drying,
isolated
24
pools provide refuge for stream organisms.
However, extremes in temperature, increases
in nitrogenous wastes (e.g., ammonia) and salts, and reductions in oxygen can tax the
performance ofresident organisms (Ostrand and Marks 2000, Ostrand and Wilde 2001).
Not surprisingly, fishes native to these systems tolerate extreme conditions such as very
low dissolved oxygen (Cech et a!.
1990).
Typically, oxygen reductions in streams and
other aquatic
systems are caused by an
increase in oxygen demand ofthe microbes and
perhaps autotrophs (particularly during night) through organic enrichment.
However,
respiration ofabundant organisms such as the exotic zebra mussel can be sufficiently
high to decrease dissolved oxygen concentrations within lotic systems (Caraco et
a!.
2000).
Many examples ofalterations ofaquatic communities with either spatial or temporal
changes in dissolved oxygen concentrations exist.
Natural variation in dissolved oxygen
concentration occurs in the floodplains of streams and rivers,
affecting the distribution of
fish.
For example, larval sunfish and shad abundance were associated with spatial
variation in dissolved oxygen concentration in wetlands ofthe Atchafalaya River in
Louisiana (Fontenot et al. 2001).
When increased connectivity through flooding
increased dissolved oxygen concentration (above
2 mg/I.) in this system,
larval fish
became abundant, likely improving recruitment.
Hence, natural wetlands with high
connectivity to their respective river or lake should have high survival offish and other
organisms.
Indeed, reductions in connectivity due to
levee
construction and
sedimentation have been implicated in reductions in local species richness ofwetlands
and adjacent ecosystems.
With improvements in water quality during the past few
25
decades, increases in dissolved oxygen due to reductions in organic enrichment have
enhanced fish species richness in many systems ranging from small
streams (Eklov et a!.
1999) to the Great Lakes (Ludsin et a!. 2001).
Although field associations between oxygen and species assemblages are somewhat
common, few field studies have attempted to
link the oxygen-driven distribution of
-
organisms in the field with laboratory-derived critical oxygen minima.
We know ofno
current published literature that explicitly links the distribution of organisms to the
warmwater dissolved oxygen criteria set by either the national (Chapman 1986) or
-
Illinois water quality standards.
Probably the most extensive combined field and
laboratory project that tested a specific
a priori
oxygen criterion was initiated by Smale
and Rabeni
(1995a,
b;
Table 1).
Oxygen minima in the eighteen headwater streams in
which they worked ranged from 0.8 to 6.0 mg/L during spring through
summer 1987 and
1988.
Dissolved oxygen concentrations and temperatures were quantified at least
monthly, and low dissolved oxygen concentrations were most frequent during warm days
with low
to no flow.
A multivariate analysis revealed that oxygen minima affected fish
assemblages more than temperature.
Temperature maxima were only correlated-with fish
assemblage composition in well oxygenated sites.
Thus, oxygen concentration was the
“template” affecting fish success, with temperature only being important when oxygen
concentrations were high.
Smale
and Rabeni (1995b) used the laboratory-derived oxygen minima summarized in
Table
1
to generate a hypoxia tolerance index.
This index was calculated by multiplying
26
the critical oxygen minimum for each species by its frequency of occurrence at each site.
The
values for each species were then summed to derive a site-specific index value.
Mean dissolved oxygen and
the hypoxia tolerance index were strongly positively
correlated
(r=0.85)
among sites.
Further,
both oxygen minima and hypoxia index values
differed among stream reach categories.
Sites within the relatively stable, steep Ozark
region streams had higher values than intermittent, lower gradient, more agricultural
-
Prairie region streams.
This research provides a framework by which
streams might be
characterized by fish responses to expected oxygen minima.
Much like
other indices, the
fish
assemblage integrates the long-term oxygen regime within streams, without frequent
and costly water quality monitoring.
However, the relative contribution ofhuman-
induced enrichment and natural factors to
oxygen concentrations and hypoxia index
values in the streams were not explored in this study.
Identifying critical oxygen minima appears to be
a potentially useful way for
characterizing systems and setting standards
for regulation ofdissolved oxygen.
However, fluctuations in dissolved oxygen may also be important, influencing the ability
for organisms to persist.
Although we have a strong understanding ofthe mechanisms
underlying fluctuations of dissolved oxygen in aquatic systems, the extent ofcycling has
not been well documented.
Rather, most field studies quantifying oxygen concentrations
in aquatic systems rely on temporally and
spatially static point estimates.
We do not have
a clear set of expectations for the spatial extent, duration, frequency, or magnitude of
dissolved oxygen fluctuations in lotic and lentic aquatic ecosystems.
Nor do we clearly
understand how organic enrichment and other physical changes affect many aspects of
27
oxygen dynamics.
Organic enrichment should increase the spatial extent ofhypoxia
within aquatic systems.
Further,
enrichment should lower mean dissolved oxygen
concentrations, decrease minimum oxygen levels, and potentially dampen daily cycles in
oxygen, with important implications for the structure ofaquatic communities.
Understanding the dynamics ofoxygen should be particularly important for systems in
which organisms have no refuge from hypoxic areas.
-
National water quality criteria for dissolved oxygen
National water quality criteria for dissolved oxygen are based primarily on research on
-
the effects oflow dissolved oxygen on the growth, survival, and reproduction offishes.
Chapman (1986) reviewed information on these relationships and developed standards
now used by the USEPA.
Chapman’s recommendations are separated into criteria for
coidwater (containing
1
or more species of salmonid Bailey
et a!.
1970
or other
coldwater or coolwater species that are similar in requirements)
and warmwater fishes,
and further divided into early life stages and other life stages (Table 2).
Chapman’s
(1986) criteria reflect dissolved oxygen levels that are
0.5
mg/I. above those that would
be expected to result in slight impairment ofproduction, thus representing values that lie
between no impairment and slight impairment.
Hence each value is a threshold below
which some
impairment is expected.
However, there
is possibility ofslight impairment if
criteria concentrations are barely maintained for considerable lengths oftime (Chapman
1986).
28
For averages, the period ofaveraging is important and should
be a moving average for
the period ofinterest.
Seven-day averages are used because the early life stages offish
-
exist for short periods and are very sensitive to oxygen stress during this period.
Ifmore
than seven
days are included in the averaging, oxygen stress to early life stages during the
critical period may be underestimated.
Longer averaging periods (e.g., 30 days) can be
used for other life stages.
Daily averages can be reasonably approximated from
daily
maximum and minimum readings if diel cycles are sinusoidal.
Ifdiel cycles are not close
to sinusoidal, time weighted averaging can be used.
However, with the increasing
availability and affordability of data logging oxygen meters, estimating daily averages
-
with these methods is becoming obsolete and monitoring dissolved oxygen
concentrations over time is becoming easier and more accurate.
For averaging, daily
maximum values that are above air saturation cannot be used (e.g., they should be
adjusted to
100
air saturation)
because they will artificially inflate daily ayerages and
do not represent any benefits
to fishes (Stewart et a!.
1967).
Daily minimum values are near the
lethal thresholds for sensitive
species and are
included to prevent acute
stress and/or mortality ofthese sensitive
species.
During die!
cycling ofdissolved oxygen, minimum values below the acceptable constant exposure
levels are tolerated as long as the properly calculated averages (see above-) -meet
or
-
exceed criteria and the minimum values are not obviously causing stress or mortality.
In
some cases (i.e. where large oscillations in
diel cycles of dissolved oxygen concentrations
occur), mean criteria are met but mean minimum criteria are violated repeatedly.
In these
cases, the mean minimum criteria are the regulatory focus.
29
In summary, daily minima are the lowest dissolved oxygen
concentrations that occur
each day (Table 4).
Seven-day mean minima are calculated by averaging the daily
minima across seven days (Table 4).
If only
a maximum and
minimum daily temperature
is available,
a 7-day mean is
calculated by averaging the daily means of the maximum
and minimum and then averaging across seven days (Table 4).
It would be more
-
desirable to
generate a time-weighted daily average ofmultiple (or continuous)
temperatures, including the maximum and minimum.
If daily maxima exceed the air-
saturation concentration (in Table 4,
11
mg/I.), then the maximum is adjusted to that
concentration before inclusion in the means.
To account for the unique problems associated with point discharges in which dissolved
oxygen concentrations can be manipulated (henceforth manipulatable discharges),
-
Chapman (1986) recommended that daily minimum values below the acceptable 7-day
mean minimum be limited
to 3 weeks per year or that the acceptable one-dayminimum
be increased to
4.5
mg/I. for co!dwater fishes and 3.5 mg/I. for warmwater fishes.
Under some natural conditions (e.g., wetlands), expected dissolved oxygen
concentrations maybe lower than means or minima set by the national criterion.
Under
these circumstances, the minimum acceptable concentration would be 90 percent ofthe
natural concentration.
A low “natural concentration”
is defined by Chapman (1986) as
naturally occurring mean or minimum dissolved oxygen concentrations that are less than
110 percent ofthe applicable criteria means, minima, orboth.
30
illinois
water quality criteriafor dissolvedoxygen
The current Illinois
general use water quality standard (Illinois Pollution Control Board,
302.206) permits
dissolved oxygen concentrations to be less than 6.0 mg/I. no more than
-
16 hours a day.
At no time can dissolved oxygen concentrations decline below 5.0 mg/L.
This criterion is similar to that
set by the USEPA
in
1976, which stated that dissolved
oxygen
concentrations should not decline below
5.0
mg/I. in aquatic systems (USEPA
1976).
This early national standard was influenced heavily by a joint National Academy
of Sciences and National Academy ofEngineering Report on water quality in 1972 that
-
encompassed a single dissolved oxygen criterion for coldwater and warmwater species.
Unlike the current national criterion (Chapman 1986, previous section), this earlier
national standard and the current Illinois standard are based on a single minimum, rather
than acknowledging that fluctuations may occur, necessitating the inclusion ofan
average.
It also does not develop separate criteria for different taxonomic groups (e.g.,
coldwater versus warmwater fishes), systems
(e.g., semi-permanent streams versus
permanent lakes), or ecoregions (e.g., central corn belt versus interior river lowland).
Illinois EPA summarizes the state’s water quality
in accordance with Section 305(b) of
the Clean Water Act (IL EPA 2002).
Annual reports are generated that assess the quality
ofsurface and groundwaters ofthe
state.
In general, surface waters are divided into
streams, lakes, and Lake Michigan, ofwhich we will focus primarily on assessments for
streams and lakes.
Several monitoring programs provide data for surface water quality
assessment including the Ambient Water Quality Monitoring Network (AWQMN),
31
Intensive Basin Surveys (IBS), Facility-Related Stream Surveys (FRSS), the Ambient
Lake Monitoring Program (AI.MP), the Illinois Clean Lakes Monitoring Program
(ICLP), the Volunteer Lake Monitoring Program (VI.MP), and the Source Water
Assessment Program (SWAP).
Illinois EPA has adopted several designated use categories for water including aquatic
life, primary contact (swimming), secondary contact (recreation), public water supply,
fish consumption, and indigenous aquatic life (ILEPA 2002).
In this report, we
summarize the applicability ofdissolved oxygen standards primarily for the aquatic life-
use designation, which is intended to provide full support
for aquatic organisms.
The
indigenous aquatic life designation is reserved for systems
in Illinois which do not fall
under Illinois EPA’s general use designation (e.g., Lake Calumet and shipping canals).
We do not explore the applicability ofstandards for these nonindigenous use waters,
-
although the criterion for dissolved
oxygen is a minimum of 4.0 mg/I.,
1
mg/I. lower than
the statewide overall use standard.
Illinois EPA’s approach toward determining whether a water body meets the aquatic life
designation is to first use a relevantbiotic indicator such as the Index ofBiotic Integrity
for fish (ffiI; Karr 1981, Karr et a!.
1986, Bertrand et a!.
1996) or Macroinvertebrate
Biotic Index (MBI) (II. EPA 1994).
Secondarily, the Illinois EPA turns to legally
established narrative and numeric water quality standards, such as the one set for
dissolved oxygen.
This approach is valid because it uses accepted biological indicators to
integrate the overall effects ofwater and habitat quality within a stream or lake.
32
Adherence to
water standards such as the one set for dissolved oxygen can then be used
to
identify the causes ofimpairment.
-
Aquatic life use in Illinois streams is evaluated based on a “weight of evidence” approach
endorsed by USEPA (II. EPA 2002).
Ifpossible, fBI and MBI data are evaluated.
These
biotic integrity values are compared
to established criteria and then stream reaches are
categorized as being in full, partial, or nonsupport of the aquatic life designated use.
If
index values are incomplete or available, then water chemistry data are used to
assess
quality.
It is under this scenario that the Illinois standard for dissolved oxygen might be
used to determine whether a stream reach is in compliance with this use designation.
Water quality data for streams derive from several sources including the IBS, which
generates IBI and MBI data and two or three water chemistry samples at intensive survey
basin sites.
AWQMN stations
also generate water chemistry data to
be used in
assessments (about nine samples per year).
FRSS stations are located at point sources
and provide an
additional two or three water chemistry samples per station.
Although
this
combination ofbiological and water quality dataprovide a useful general assessment
ofstream reach integrity, dissolved oxygen concentrations deriving from these sampling
regimes are limited
at best and probably do not capture the natural daily and seasonal
fluctuations that occur.
Limited point estimates ofdissolved oxygen concentration may
not fully reflect the oxygen dynamics occurring in stream reaches.
In recognition ofthe limitations ofsingle water chemistry estimates, Illinois EPA uses
criteria based on the age and abundance ofwater quality samples (IL EPA 2002).
For
33
example, a specific water quality criterion can be used to assess aquatic life use if ten or
more samples less than
5
years old are available.
Under these conditions, a system would
be impaired for aquatic life use if dissolved oxygen concentrations declined below the
state standard in greater than
10
ofsamples.
Ifgreater than
25
of samples are below
the standard, then the reach
is considered severely impaired.
This approach better
integrates potential fluctuations in dissolved oxygen concentration.
However, if
-
minimum dissolved oxygen criteria used by the state are too conservative, minima within
natural fluctuations in oxygen concentration may be interpreted as impairment.
Because
the Illinois EPA designation process requires that biologists account for other site-
-
specific factors such as habitat quality and biotic integrity indicators, the likelihood that a
system would be considered impaired solely as a function oflow dissolved oxygen
concentration
is low.
A similar approach is used for the assessment ofaquatic life use in inland lakes in
Illinois
(IL EPA 2002).
Chemical, physical, and biological data derive from many sources, and
include as many as 2,000
lakes.
Probably the most intensive survey program is the
ALMP,
which includes about 50 lakes per year.
Lakes are monitored
five times per year,
and
dissolved oxygen profiles are included in the sampling protocol.
Other data derive
from the ILCP and VLMP.
The Illinois EPA’s Aquatic Life Use Impairment Index (ALl)
is the primary indicator used for assessing the level ofsupport ofaquatic life use.
The
ALT integrates the mean trophic state index
(TSI; Carlson 1977), macrophyte coverage,
and concentration ofnonvolatile suspended solids.
ALT values increase with increasing
impairment (e.g., high productivity, high vegetation coverage, high suspended solids).
34
These ALT values are used to
score each lake for overall use support.
The overall use
scores are then averaged for a lake when more than one measurement is
available.
Low
dissolved oxygen concentration is considered as a potential cause of impairment (i.e.,
when the mean overall use score is high) if (1) concentrations below the minimum
standard
(5
mg/L at one foot below the surface) occur at least once during a sampling
year or (2) the lake mean is consistently below this minimum.
A fish kill corresponding
with low oxygen would also qualify for designation of low oxygen as a potential
cause of
use impairment.
The 2002 IEPA Water Quality (305b) report summarized aquatic life use support for
Illinois streams and lakes through September 2000.
Of the 15,491
miles ofstreams that
were
assessed,
5,450
miles were categorized as being in partial or no
support ofthe use
designation.
For 2,962 miles ofthe impaired stream reaches, low dissolved
oxygen due
to organic enrichment was implicated as a potential cause ofimpairment.
Of 148,134
acres oflakes (N=352 lakes), 3,948 acres (N=2 lakes) were
categorized as failing to
support overall
use.
In addition,
121,648 acres (N=203 lakes) were in partial support.
Organic enrichment leading to
low dissolved oxygen was implicated as a cause
impairment
for 80,135 acres
(N=59
lakes).
Clearly, low dissolved oxygen
concentrations, as they are now defined by the state standard, are an
important
contributor to impairment ofdesignated use in
Illinois surface waters.
35
Assessment ofIL water quality standard and recommendations
Based on our review ofthe literature and current standards, the current IL
EPA methods
for assessing health and impairment are adequate, but the Tllinois dissolved oxygen
standards are in need offurther refinement.
In particular, the focus on biological integrity
-
for initial assessment offreshwater habitat health is the appropriate, progressive approach
and the state should continue its focus on biotic integrity.
However, the dissolved oxygen
standards,
based on daily minima, are likely too conservative for freshwater systems in
this region and should be modified to more realistically reflect local conditions.
Tn this
document, we provide state-wide recommendations.
However, with increased scientific-
information, region- orbasin-specific standards likely will more realistically set criteria
based upon expected conditions in oxygen, other water quality parameters, and habitat
characteristics.
Ourrecommendations are to generally adopt standards ofChapman (1986) for
warmwater systems, with some modifications based on research that has been completed
since this document was produced (see Table 4 for example ofcalculations).
Thirty-day
moving averages identified in Chapman (1986) are not included in our recommendations
because (1) they are not appropriate for early life history
stages in which development
occurs at a much shorter time scale and (2) responses ofall life stages to changes in
oxygen concentrations are likely better captured and more biologically relevant during
shorter windows oftime (i.e.,
1-7 days).
36
Ourrecommendations for the State of Illinois are seasonal to (1) protect early life stages
(i.e., eggs, embryos, and larvae; typically 30-d post spawning) of spring-spawning fish
species (Table 3) and (2) incorporate the expected fluctuations and
reduced maximum
capacity ofdissolved oxygen during summer months whenjuvenile or adult stages are
largely present.
Although few supporting data are available, species with offspring
-
produced during non-spring months (Table 3) likely have adaptations that allow them to
persist under natural oxygen concentrations expected during summer.
Thus, our
recommended criteria fornon-spring months should be sufficiently protective unless
further research necessitates refinement.
Our recommendations are summarized in Table
5.
Spring through Early Summer
•
A
1-day minimum of5.0 mg/I. during spring through early summer (i.e., March
1
through June 30).
This recommendation is based on our re-analysis ofChapman
(l986)’s daily minima
(5
mg/L) for early life stages offish (Figure 1) and spawning
times summarized in Table
3.
•
A 7-day mean of6.0 mg/L during spring through early summer (i.e., March
1
through
June 30).
This mean is defined as the average ofthe daily average values and should
be based, whenever possible, on data collected by semi-continuous data loggers.
If
this is not possible, daily averages can be estimated from the daily maximum and
minimum values if daily fluctuations in dissolved oxygen
are approximately
sinusoidal.
Tf daily fluctuations are not sinusoidal, then appropriate time-weighted
37
averages must be used.
Regardless ofmethod (data loggers or daily maximum and
minimum), maximum values used to
calculate means should not exceed the air
saturation concentrations forprevailing temperature
and atmospheric pressure (see
Table
4 for example).
-
OtherMonths
-
•
A 1-day minimum of
3.5
mg/I. during the remainder ofthe year (i.e., July
1
through
February 28 or 29).
This recommendation is based on our re-evaluation ofChapman
(1986)’s daily minima (3 mg/L) for adult life stages and fish spawning times
-
summarized in Table
3.
Tt also is sufficiently higher than the critical minima for
survival found for many common species of fish (e.g., see Table
1).
•
A 7-day mean minimum of4.0 mg/I. during periods during the remainder ofthe year
(i.e., July
1
through February 28 or 29).
Mean minimum is
defined as the average of
the minimum daily recorded dissolved
oxygen concentrations.
Seven-day periods can
represent any seven consecutive days and
should be based on moving averages when
possible (see
Table 4).
-
Other Considerations
•
Manipulatable discharges, defined earlier as those in which
dissolved oxygen
concentrations may be manipulated and are generally serially correlated, present a
special case where a seven-day mean minimum can be achieved while frequently
lowering conditions to the daily minimum and likely exposing aquatic life to oxygen
38
stress (Chapman 1986).
As a result, two areas in proximity to manipulatable
discharges should be monitored closely (e.g., continuously).
One measurement
should be taken at the zone ofmixing; the other monitoring station should be
downstream, at an area beyond the direct
influence ofthe mixing zone.
During the
non-spring months when seven —day mean minima are allowable (July through
February; Table
5),
we recommend that the occurrence ofdaily minima values at-the
recommended one-dayminimum (3.5 mg/L) should be limited to no more than 3
weeks total
per year or that the one-day minimum be increased to
4.0 mg/I. for areas
in which manipulatable discharges occur.
These guidelines will reduce the likelihood
of exposing aquatic life influenced by manipulatable discharges to
oxygen stress.
•
In cases where diel fluctuations ofdissolved oxygen
are extreme, systems might meet
mean criteria but still violate minima.
Unusually large diel
fluctuations are
symptomatic of eutrophication and in these cases the minima should be the focus of
monitoring and
assessment activities.
•
Although we recommend the use ofcontinuous monitoring with data loggers, the
detection of the violation of daily minima values will be more likely using this
method.
Thus, the detection ofviolations of daily minima using
relatively infrequent
spot checks may be indicative of larger problems than those measured with
continuous monitoring.
This potential issue should be acknowledged during
monitoring and assessment.
39
•
In streams, we recommend that dissolved oxygen measurements be measured in pool
or run habitats (not riffles) in the water column in
or near the thalweg at 67
of
stream depth.
Readings in streams should not be taken at the sediment/water
interface, as this is a region where natural oxygen sags are expected.
We recognize
that many sensitive taxa reside in
the benthos and may be negatively affectedby
hypoxia in
this zone.
Thus, future criteria including expected oxygen concentrations
at the sediment/water interface may be useful.
Research that quantifies relationships
between water-column dissolved oxygen concentrations and those at the sediment
boundary would be helpful for determining such standards.
Natural inundation of
-
potentially hypoxic groundwater also must be
taken into account when assessing
stream oxygen.
In lakes, readings should be taken
1 m below the surface in the
limnetic zone above the deepest point ofthe lake.
•
Lake Michigan represents the only large-scale, native coidwater fisheries system in
Illinois and thus should be considered separately from our recommendations in this
document that are focused on warmwater systems.
We recommend that coldwater
and coolwater fisheries associated with Lake Michigan be held to standards more
appropriate for resident fish communities, which have distinctly higher oxygen
requirements (Chapman 1986).
The current TI. EPA recommended daily minimum of
5
mg/I. is adequate for the coldwater and coolwater fishes in Lake Michigan (see
Chapman 1986 review oftolerance of coldwater species) unless further research
indicates otherwise.
40
•
Wetlands differ from lakes and streams in that they are often naturally productive
systems with low oxygen.
Wetland habitats are protected by numerous laws and
other protective measures, but there is little information regarding water quality
standards forwetlands.
Further, wetlands are highly variable and a single,
-
comprehensive standard maybe difficult to achieve.
As such, we cannot make
-
recommendations regarding wetlands except that they should not be held to the
-
standards we recommend for streams and
lakes.
Future research on water quality and
associated methods and standards in Illinois should include wetlands.
•
It should be noted that the criteria we recommend for streams and lakes in Illinois
represent worst case conditions and thus the mimimum values that we recommend, or
values near the mimimum,
should not be commonplace in space or time throughout
the state.
Systems in which dissolved oxygen concentrations decline frequently to the
recommended minima should not be designated as being in
full support ofaquatic life
use.
The frequency by which minima should be allowed to
occur should depend on
season.
During spring when early life stages are present, weekly or more frequent
declines to
daily
1 -d minima maybe sufficient to cause stress to developing eggs,
embryos, and
larvae, compromising success ofpopulations that reproduce over
relatively short time periods.
Conversely, twice weekly or more frequent declines
to
1-d minima may be tolerated by adults during other months.
Given the dearth of
scientific information available,
these estimates can only be made based on our
knowledge ofthe timing ofreproductive events and short-term responses ofadults to
hypoxia.
Managers of aquatic systems
in Tllinois should strive to continuously
41
improve conditions
ratherthan avoid violations ofstate minimum standards.
As
mentioned earlier, this may be best achieved by primarily monitoring the biological
components ofaquatic systems (e.g., biotic integrity).
We stress that focusing on
biotic integrity in monitoring and assessment
activities should continue as a major
focus for the state of Illinois.
Aquatic communities reflect the overall health of
aquatic ecosystems, and
can thus integrate all stressors.
Water quality monitoring
(e.g., continuous dissolved oxygen concentrations) and habitat assessment is critical
for identifying the cause of changes in biotic integrity.
Further research on specific
relationships between biotic integrity, dissolved oxygen,
and other water quality and
habitat factors is needed.
•
Research that quantifies relationships between biotic integrity and dissolved
oxygen
concentrations in Illinois streams will allow for development ofphysiologically
based, hypoxic indices (e.g., Smale and Rabeni 1995b), which may prove very useful
for the assessment and
monitoring of surface water habitats in Tllinois.
Laboratory-
based estimates ofphysiological tolerance of low dissolved oxygen concentrations
often fail to
integrate the host ofenvironmental factors affecting growth, survival, and
reproductive viability.
Thus, future research should quantifyresponses under more
realistic conditions.
Gaps in ourknowledge
Dissolved oxygen criteria and other standards
for assessing freshwater ecosystem health
and function should continue to
evolve as more information on relationships between
42
ecosystem health and the variety ofmeasured variables is gathered.
Hence, all
recommendations made within this
document must be considered within the context of
our current knowledge ofthese relationships and mayneed further modification as more
information becomes available.
There are many different knowledge gaps and research
needs in Illinois, as well as at the national level.
In particular, we feel that further
research on quantitative relationships between die! oxygen curves,
nutrient status,
and
primary production will provide very important information for further understanding
freshwater ecosystem health and function and further modifying water quality standards.
In particular, research that directly quantifies these relationships, rather than correlational
analyses will be ofgreat value for establishing realistic water quality standards.
Research
in this
area should also focus on how die! oxygen curves are related to daily and longer-
term minima and
average values, and how biological
(primaryproducer communities)
and physical- (nutrients, light, flow, substrates) factors interact to influence them.
A more
precise understanding ofthese relationships in different types ofsurface water habitats
will greatly enhance our ability to develop more precise and meaningful criteria.
There is also a great need for further research on the use ofbiological data for assessing
freshwater ecosystem health and integrity and establishing water quality standards.
While dissolved
oxygen criteria may accurately reflect oxygen stress related to nutrient
and/or organic enrichment, biological monitoring can reflect oxygen status as well as a
wide array ofother potential stressors such as other forms ofpollution (e.g.,
pesticides,
metals) and physical habitat degradation, and integrate conditions over space and time
(e.g., Steingraeber
and Wiener 1995, Rabeni 2000,
Griffith et al. 2001).
Because ofthis
43
and the many other benefits ofbiological monitoring (e.g., see Loeb and
Spacie 1993,
Barbour et
a!.
1999, and Barbour et al. 2000 for review ofthe many benefits ofbiological
monitoring), and the national focus on biomonitoring, we ultimately recommend that
Illinois move further towards the use ofbiological data for assessing freshwater habitat
health and function and setting water quality criteria in Illinois.
In order for this to
happen, region and habitat specific tolerance values, metrics, and multimetric indices that
best reflect health
and function will need to be developed, tested, and calibrated
throughout the state.
Along with this, research on region and habitat specific reference
conditions will be needed.
As with research on dissolved oxygen dynamics, research that
moves away from only correlational analyses and focuses more on isolating and directly
testing variables will be ofmost value.
-
44
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54
Table
1.
Critical minimum dissolved oxygen concentrations for 35
species ofcommon
headwater stream fishes determined from laboratory experiments (Smale and Rabeni
1995b).
Critical minimum dissolved oxygen
concentration (mg/L)
Species
Rank
Mean
95
CI
Brook silversides
1
1.59
1.70-1.48
Rosyface shiner
2
1.49
1.67-1.30
Ozark minnow
3
1.45
1.57-1.33
Bleeding shiner
4
1.35
1.47-1.23
Smallmouth bass
5
1.19
1.29-1.08
Redfin shiner
6
1.17
1.25-1.08
Blackbullhead
7
1.13
1.27-1.00
Rainbow darter
8
1.10
1.21-0.99
Hornyhead chub
9
1.06
1.20-0.92
Bluntnosemmnnow
10
1.04
1.11-0.97
Suckermouth minnow
11
1.04
1.09-0.98
Striped shiner
12
1.03
1.10-0.95
Bigmouth shiner
13
1.02
1.07-0.97
Fantail darter
14
0.98
1.06-0.91
White sucker
15
0.98
1.16-0.79
Common shiner
16
0.97
1.06-0.89
Central
stoneroller
17
0.95
1.04-0.86
Sand shiner
18
0.93
1.11-0.75
Plains topmmnnow
19
0.92
1.02-0.82
Red shiner
20
0.91
0.99-0.82
Blackspotted topminnow
21
0.88
1.25-0.5 1
Blackstripe topmmnnow
22
0.88
0.90-0.85
Orangethroat darter
23
0.86
0.98-0.73
Creek chub
24
0.84
0.90-0.79
Southern redbelly dace
25
0.74
0.80-0.69
Fathead minnow
26
0.73
0.79-0.67
Johnny darter
27
0.70
0.76-0.64
Golden shiner
28
0.70
0.75-0.65
Largemouth bass
29
0.70
0.77-0.63
Longear sunfish
30
0.68
0.74-0.63
Bluegill
31
0.66
0.74-0.57
Green sunfish
32
0.63
0.68-0.57
Orangespotted sunfish
33
0.62
0.68-0.56
Slender madtom
34
0.60
0.67-0.54
Yellow bullhead
35
0.49
0.52-0.46
55
Table
2.
USEPA water quality criteria for ambient water column dissolved
oxygen concentration from
Chapman (1986).
Early life stages include
all
embryonic and larval stages and juveniles to
30 days post-hatching.
Period/Value
Early life stages
Other stages
30daymean
NA
5.5
7daymean
6.0
NA
7 day mean minimum
NA
4.0
1
day minimum
5.0
3.0
56
Table
3.
Summary of spawning temperatures or times for common warmwater fish taxa
(by genus or species)
in Illinois.
Summaries derive from Pflieger (1997) and B.M. Burr,
personal communication, Department ofZoology, Southern Illinois University,
Carbondale.
Months or Temperatures of
-
Comnion name
Genus/Species
Spawning
Season- of Spawning
Lampreys
Ichthyomyzon
and
Lampetra
March through May
Spring
Paddlefish
Polyodon spathula
April through May
Spring
Goldeye and Mooneye
Hiodon
March
through April
Spring
Mudminnow
Umbra limi
April
Spring
Pikes
Esox
March through April
Spring
Creek chub
Semotilus atromaculatus
April through May
Spring
Hornyhead chub
Nocomis biguttatus
April through May
Spring
Stonerollers
Campostoma
15°C
Spring
-
Redhorse
Moxostoma
April through May
Spring
Hogsucker
Hypentelium nigricans
April through May
Spring
Sucker
Catostomous
March through May
Spring
Spotted sucker
Minytrenia melanops
April through May
Spring
Chubsucker
Erimyzon
Aprilthrough May
Spring
Pirate perch
Aphredoderussayanus
May
Spring
Sculpin
Coitus
March
through April
Spring
Temperate bass
Morone
April through May
Spring
Rock bass
Ambloplites rupestris
April through May
Spring
Crappie
Pomoxis
April through May
Spring
Walleye/Sauger
Sander
April
Spring
Yellow perch
Percaflavescens
April through May
Spring
Logperch
Percina caprodes
April
Spring
Darters
Etheostoma
March through May
Spring
Freshwater drum
Aplodinotus grunniens
April through May
Spring
Sturgeons
Acipenser
and
Scaphyrhynchus
April through -June
Spring-Early Summer
Gar
Lepisosteus
April through June
Spring-Early Summer
Skipjack herring
Alosa chrysochloris
April through June
Spring-Early Summer
Gizzard/threadfin shad
Dorosoma
April through June
Spring-Early Summer
Common carp
Cyprinus carpio
March through June
Spring-Early Summer
Golden shiner
Notemigonus crysoleucas
Aprilthrough June
Spring-Early Summer
Dace
Rhinic/zthys
April through June
Spring-Early Summer
Silverjaw minnow
Ericymba buccata
Maythrough June
Spring-Early Summer
Southern redbelly dace
Phoxinus erythrogaster
May through June
Spring-Early Summer
Minnows
Hybognathus
May through June
Spring-Early Summer
Minnows
Pimephales
May through June
Spring-Early
Summer
Buffalo
Ictiobus
April through June
Spring-Early Summer
Carpsuckers
Carpiodes
April through June
Spring-Early Summer
Catfish
Ictalurus
May through June
Spring-Early Summer
Madtoms
Noturus
May through June
Spring-Early Summer
Blackbass
Micropterus
May through June
Spring-Early Summer
Other
Rercina
Percina
Varies
-
April through June
Spring-Early Summer
57
Table 3 continued.
Troutperch
Percopsis omiscomaycus
March through August
Spring-Summer
Killifish
Fundulus
May through August
Spring-Summer
Mosquitofish
Gambusia affinis
May through August
Spring-Summer
Brook silverside
Labidesthes sicculus
May through August
Spring-Summer
Sunfish
Lepomis
May through August
Spring-Summer
Chubs
Hybopsis
Summer
Summer
Shiners
Notropis
May through July
Summer
Flathead catfish
Pylodictus olivaris
June through July
Summer
Darters
Ammocrvvta
Unknown
Unknown
58
Table
4.
Example calculations for
1 -d minimum, 7-d mean, and 7-d mean minimum
dissolved oxygen concentrations (mg/I.; adapted
from Chapman 1986).
If only a
maximum and minimum daily temperature is available, a 7-day mean is calculated by
averaging the daily means (maximum plus minimum divided by two) and then averaging
across seven days (see below).
It would be more desirable to generate a time-weighted
daily average ofmultiple (or continuous) daily temperatures, including the maximum- and
minimum.
-
Day
Daily Max
Daily Mm
DailyMean
1
9.0
7.0
8.0
2
10.0
7.0
-
8.5
3
11.0
8.0
9.5
4
12.0*
8.0
95*
5
10.0
8.0
9.0
6
11.0
9.0
10.0
7
12.0*
10.0
-
10.5*
1
day minimum
7.0
7 day mean mm.
8.1
7daymean
9.3
*Maximum value exceeds air saturation
concentration of 11
mg/I..
59
Table
5.
Recommended waterquality criteria for ambient water column dissolved
oxygen concentration in
Illinois surface waters (excluding the Great Lakes, Great Lake
coolwater tributaries, and wetlands).
Period/Value
Spring (March
1-June 30)
Non Spring
(July 1-
February 28
or 29)
1-dminimum
5.0
3.5
7-dmean
.
6.0
-
7-d mean minimum
-
4.0
